24 Analogies

24.1 What the Syllabus Covers

An analogy is an inference based on similarity. The basic form is A : B :: C : D — read as “A is to B as C is to D”. The candidate’s task is to identify the relation between A and B and apply the same relation to C → choose D.

The syllabus covers three PYQ-frequent analogy forms:

Word analogies — Doctor : Patient :: Teacher : ?
Number analogies — 2 : 8 :: 3 : ? (cube relation: D = 27).
Figure / pattern analogies — visual relations (rotation, reflection, addition).

The most-repeated PYQ patterns are: (a) identify the relation type in the first pair, (b) complete an analogy with the right D, (c) choose the analogous pair from options, and (d) recognise analogical fallacies (false analogy).

24.2 The Three-Step Approach

Three-Step Approach to Any Analogy

Identify the precise relation between A and B (avoid the trap of a “too-broad” relation).
State the relation as a sentence: “A is the [relation] of B” or vice-versa.
Apply the same relation to C, then pick the option that fits.

If two options seem to fit, refine the relation — find what distinguishes them.

24.3 The Sixteen Standard Word-Analogy Relations

Sixteen Standard Analogy Relations

#	Relation	Example
1	Synonyms	Big : Large :: Small : Tiny
2	Antonyms	Hot : Cold :: Light : Dark
3	Part-Whole	Wheel : Car :: Page : Book
4	Whole-Part	Tree : Leaf :: Body : Organ
5	Worker-Tool	Carpenter : Saw :: Doctor : Stethoscope
6	Worker-Product	Cobbler : Shoes :: Baker : Bread
7	Cause-Effect	Virus : Disease :: Earthquake : Damage
8	Function	Pen : Write :: Knife : Cut
9	Place / Habitat	Fish : Water :: Bird : Sky
10	Symbol-Reality	Dove : Peace :: Rose : Love
11	Degree / Intensity	Drizzle : Rain :: Spark : Fire
12	Container	Wallet : Money :: Vase : Flower
13	Classification	Mammal : Whale :: Reptile : Snake
14	Object-Material	Tyre : Rubber :: Bottle : Glass
15	Sex / Gender	King : Queen :: Lion : Lioness
16	Young / Adult	Calf : Cow :: Cub : Lion

24.3.1 Other Useful Categories

More Useful Relation Categories

Country-Capital — India : New Delhi :: France : Paris.
Country-Currency — India : Rupee :: Japan : Yen.
Country-Language — France : French.
Profession-Place — Doctor : Hospital :: Lawyer : Court.
Tool-Object — Hammer : Nail.
Quantity-Unit — Distance : Metre :: Mass : Kilogram.
Subject-Study — Geology : Earth :: Cardiology : Heart.
Author-Book — Premchand : Godan :: Gandhi : My Experiments with Truth.
Cardinal direction / Opposite-direction.
Quality-Person — Honesty : Saint.
Performer-Action — Singer : Sing :: Dancer : Dance.

24.4 Number Analogies

A number analogy uses a numerical relation. Most rely on standard operations.

Common Number-Analogy Operations

Addition / Subtraction — 3 : 8 :: 7 : ? (× +5 → 12).
Multiplication / Division — 4 : 12 :: 6 : ? (× 3 → 18).
Square / Cube — 3 : 9 :: 5 : ? (n² → 25); 2 : 8 :: 3 : ? (n³ → 27).
Square-root / Cube-root — 81 : 9 :: 144 : ? (√ → 12).
Successor / Predecessor — 5 : 6 :: 12 : 13.
Position in sequence (primes, squares, cubes, Fibonacci).
Factorial / Multiple — 3 : 6 :: 4 : 24 (n!).

24.4.1 Worked Examples

Number Analogy — Worked

Q. 7 : 49 :: 9 : ? Rule: n² → 9² = 81.

Q. 12 : 6 :: 18 : ? Rule: half → 18/2 = 9.

Q. 2 : 8 :: 4 : ? Rule: n³ → 4³ = 64.

Q. 1 : 1 :: 2 : 4 :: 3 : 9 :: 5 : ? Rule: n² → 25.

24.5 Letter / Word-Letter Analogies

Letter-Pair Analogy Patterns

Forward-skip: AC : BD :: CE : ? (skip-one pair, all +1) → DF.
Reverse-pair: AZ : BY :: CX : DW :: ? — next pair = EV.
Position arithmetic: A : 1 :: B : 2 :: C : ? = 3.
Mirror: A ↔︎ Z, B ↔︎ Y, … (Topic 19).
Letter-to-word position: CAT (C=3, A=1, T=20) etc.

24.5.1 Worked Letter Analogies

Letter Analogy — Worked

Q. CD : EF :: GH : ? Rule: add 2 to each letter → IJ. Q. AB : YZ :: CD : ? Rule: mirror pair → WX (since A↔︎Z, B↔︎Y; so C↔︎X, D↔︎W → pair WX in order). Q. ABC : ZYX :: DEF : ? Rule: mirror each letter and reverse order → WVU.

24.6 Figure / Pattern Analogies

Figure analogies use visual relations: rotation, reflection, inversion, addition or removal of elements, change of shape/size.

Common Figure-Pattern Relations

Rotation — 90° clockwise, 180°, 90° anti-clockwise.
Reflection — about horizontal/vertical axis.
Inversion — upside-down.
Add / remove an element (dot, line, circle).
Mirror image of letters / digits.
Embedding — small shape inside large.
Increasing / decreasing pattern — sides of a polygon, dots.

(NTA’s figure analogies are typically presented as image options; the candidate matches transformation rules.)

24.7 Choosing Between Option Pairs

A common PYQ variant: pick the pair that has the same relation as the given pair.

::: {.callout-tip title=“How to Solve”Choose the Analogous Pair”“} 1. Decode the given pair’s relation precisely. 2. Test each option against that exact relation. 3. Pick the closest match — eliminate near-misses (same-direction but weaker, or wrong direction). :::

24.7.1 Worked Example

Choose Analogous Pair — Worked

Q. Pen : Write A. Book : Read · B. Knife : Cut · C. Chair : Sit · D. Ear : Listen

Decode: Pen is a tool used to perform the action ‘write’. Test: Knife is a tool used to cut → ✓ (B). The others involve passive activity or part-action mismatches. Best answer = B.

24.8 The Logic of Analogical Reasoning

In logic, an analogical argument is inductive: A is like B in respects p₁, p₂, …; A has property q; therefore B probably has q.

Five Factors That Strengthen an Analogy

Number of shared respects.
Relevance of shared respects to the conclusion.
Diversity of shared respects (different kinds of similarity).
Absence of disqualifying differences.
Strength of the claim — modest conclusions are better supported than sweeping ones.

24.8.1 False Analogy — A Common Fallacy

A false analogy mistakenly assumes that because two things are alike in some respects, they must be alike in another — without checking relevance.

False Analogy — Example

“The brain is a computer. Computers can be turned off. Therefore the brain can be turned off.”

The analogy fails because being turned off depends on relevant features of computers (a power switch, digital state) that brains lack.

24.9 Analogy in Education and Science

Where Analogies Help

Teaching — making the abstract concrete (atom as solar system; brain as computer).
Bruner’s spiral curriculum — return to ideas at greater depth via analogies.
Aristotle’s Topics and Rhetoric extensively use analogy.
Scientific hypothesis generation — Kepler from astrology to elliptical orbits; Mendel’s pea analogy.
Indian Nyāya logic uses Upamāna (analogy) as one source of valid knowledge (Topic 25).
AI / NLP — analogy as core reasoning task (e.g., GloVe / word2vec analogies “king − man + woman ≈ queen”).

24.10 Theory Anchors

Persons and Concepts

Person	Year	Contribution
Aristotle	4th c. BCE	Analogy in Rhetoric and Topics
Gautama / Nyāya	~2nd c. CE	Upamāna as a pramāṇa (Topic 26)
Mary Hesse	1966	Models and Analogies in Science
Douglas Hofstadter	1979 / 2013	Gödel, Escher, Bach; analogy as core cognition
Dedre Gentner	1983	Structure-Mapping Theory of analogy
Bruner	1960	Spiral curriculum (analogies in teaching)
word2vec / GloVe	2013	Analogical relations in word-vector space

24.11 Practice Questions

Q 01 Function Easy

Pen : Write :: Knife : ?

ASharp
BCut
CSteel
DKitchen

View solution

Correct Option: B

Function relation: pen → write; knife → cut.

Q 02 Worker-Tool Easy

Doctor : Stethoscope :: Teacher : ?

ALecture
BStudent
CChalk
DSchool

View solution

Correct Option: C

Worker-Tool relation: doctor uses stethoscope as primary tool; teacher uses chalk.

Q 03 Part-Whole Medium

Wheel : Car :: Page : ?

APaper
BPencil
CBook
DAuthor

View solution

Correct Option: C

Part-Whole: wheel is part of car; page is part of book.

Q 04 Degree Medium

Drizzle : Rain :: Spark : ?

ASmoke
BFire
CLight
DHeat

View solution

Correct Option: B

Degree of intensity: a drizzle is a small/early form of rain; a spark is a small/early form of fire.

Q 05 Symbol Medium

Dove : Peace :: Owl : ?

ASound
BWisdom
CNight
DForest

View solution

Correct Option: B

Symbol-Reality: dove symbolises peace; owl symbolises wisdom.

Q 06 Cause-Effect Medium

Virus : Disease :: Earthquake : ?

APlate
BDamage
CBuilding
DSeismology

View solution

Correct Option: B

Cause-Effect: virus causes disease; earthquake causes damage.

Q 07 Number Easy

2 : 8 :: 3 : ?

View solution

Correct Option: D

Cube relation: 2³ = 8; 3³ = 27.

Q 08 Number Medium

81 : 9 :: 144 : ?

View solution

Correct Option: B

Square-root: √81 = 9; √144 = 12.

Q 09 Number Medium

7 : 56 :: 6 : ?

View solution

Correct Option: B

Multiply by (n−1): 7 × 8 = 56; 6 × 7 = 42. (Alternative: n² + n; works for 7² + 7 = 56 and 6² + 6 = 42.)

Q 10 Letter Medium

CD : EF :: GH : ?

View solution

Correct Option: A

+2 to each letter: GH + 2 = IJ.

Q 11 Mirror Hard

ABC : ZYX :: DEF : ?

AVWU
BWVU
CUVW
DWUV

View solution

Correct Option: B

Mirror each letter and reverse order: D↔W, E↔V, F↔U → WVU.

Q 12 Country-Capital Easy

India : New Delhi :: Japan : ?

ABeijing
BTokyo
CSeoul
DBangkok

View solution

Correct Option: B

Country-Capital: Japan → Tokyo.

Q 13 Object-Material Medium

Tyre : Rubber :: Bottle : ?

AWater
BCap
CGlass
DRound

View solution

Correct Option: C

Object → Material: tyre made of rubber; bottle made of glass.

Q 14 Subject-Study Hard

Cardiology : Heart :: Nephrology : ?

ALung
BLiver
CKidney
DBrain

View solution

Correct Option: C

Study → Object: cardiology studies the heart; nephrology studies the kidney.

Q 15 Choose Pair Medium

Which pair has the SAME relation as "Carpenter : Saw"?

ASculptor : Chisel
BDoctor : Disease
CAuthor : Book
DSinger : Song

View solution

Correct Option: A

Worker-Tool relation: carpenter uses saw; sculptor uses chisel. (B = professional-target; C/D = worker-product.)

Q 16 Antonym Easy

Hot : Cold :: Day : ?

ASun
BLight
CNight
DSleep

View solution

Correct Option: C

Antonym: day ↔ night.

Q 17 Young-Adult Medium

Cub : Lion :: Calf : ?

ABull
BCow
CGoat
DBoth A and B

View solution

Correct Option: D

A calf is a young cow OR bull (a young bovine). Either fits the young-adult relation.

Q 18 False Analogy Hard

"The brain is a computer. Computers can be turned off. Therefore the brain can be turned off." This is an example of:

AStrong induction
BValid deduction
CFalse analogy
DAbduction

View solution

Correct Option: C

False analogy — the analogy extends to an irrelevant feature ("being turned off") not warranted by the similarity.

Q 19 Synonym Easy

Big : Large :: Small : ?

ATiny
BTall
CWide
DHidden

View solution

Correct Option: A

Synonym: small → tiny.

Q 20 Match Medium

Match each analogy to its relation type:

(i)	Glove : Hand	(a)	Cause-Effect
(ii)	Fire : Smoke	(b)	Container-Contained
(iii)	Honey : Bee	(c)	Worker-Product
(iv)	Wallet : Money	(d)	Cover-Covered

A(i)-d, (ii)-a, (iii)-c, (iv)-b
B(i)-a, (ii)-b, (iii)-c, (iv)-d
C(i)-c, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-b
D(i)-b, (ii)-c, (iii)-d, (iv)-a

View solution

Correct Option: A

Glove covers hand; Fire causes smoke; Honey is product of bee; Wallet contains money.

24.12 Quick Recall

Quick recall

Analogy form: A : B :: C : D — “A is to B as C is to D”.
3-step approach: identify relation precisely → state it as a sentence → apply to C.
16 standard word-analogy relations: Synonym · Antonym · Part-Whole · Whole-Part · Worker-Tool · Worker-Product · Cause-Effect · Function · Place/Habitat · Symbol-Reality · Degree/Intensity · Container · Classification · Object-Material · Sex/Gender · Young-Adult.
Other useful types: Country-Capital · Country-Currency · Country-Language · Profession-Place · Tool-Object · Quantity-Unit · Subject-Study · Author-Book · Quality-Person · Performer-Action.
Number-analogy operations: addition/subtraction · multiplication/division · square/cube · square-root/cube-root · successor/predecessor · sequence position (primes/squares/cubes/Fibonacci) · factorial.
Letter-analogy patterns: forward-skip · reverse-pair · position arithmetic · mirror (A↔︎Z) · letter-to-word position.
Figure-analogy transformations: rotation · reflection · inversion · add/remove element · embedding · pattern progression.
Analogical reasoning logic = inductive. 5 strength factors: number of shared respects · relevance · variety · absence of disqualifying differences · modesty of conclusion.
False analogy fallacy — extending to an irrelevant feature.
Indian Nyāya — Upamāna is one of the pramāṇas, valid sources of knowledge (Topic 26).
Modern uses: Bruner spiral curriculum · scientific hypothesis generation · word-vector arithmetic (king − man + woman ≈ queen).
Theory anchors: Aristotle (Rhetoric, Topics) · Gautama Nyāya · Mary Hesse 1966 · Hofstadter · Dedre Gentner (Structure-Mapping 1983) · Bruner · word2vec 2013.