flowchart TB
R[Research] --> P[By Purpose]
R --> A[By Approach]
R --> N[By Nature of Data]
R --> T[By Time]
P --> P1[Pure / Basic]
P --> P2[Applied]
P --> P3[Action]
A --> A1[Quantitative]
A --> A2[Qualitative]
A --> A3[Mixed methods]
N --> N1[Empirical]
N --> N2[Conceptual]
N --> N3[Historical]
T --> T1[Cross-sectional]
T --> T2[Longitudinal]
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7 Research: Meaning, Types and Characteristics
7.1 Meaning of Research
Research is the systematic, objective and reproducible inquiry into a question, with the aim of discovering, interpreting or revising facts, theories or applications.
The word research derives from Old French recerche — “to seek again”. The Sanskrit equivalent is Anveshana or Gaveshana (a deliberate search).
TipWorking Definitions of Research
| Author | Definition | What it foregrounds |
|---|---|---|
| Clifford Woody | “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions” | Process — sequence of steps |
| John W. Best | “Research is more systematic activity directed towards discovery and the development of an organised body of knowledge” | Knowledge organisation |
| Kerlinger | “Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis” | Theory-driven, empirical |
| Redman & Mory | “Systematized effort to gain new knowledge” | Newness of knowledge |
| C.R. Kothari | “A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic” | Specificity and pertinence |
7.2 Characteristics of Research
TipEight Characteristics of Good Research
| Characteristic | What it requires |
|---|---|
| Systematic | Follows a defined sequence of steps |
| Logical | Conclusions follow from premises and evidence |
| Empirical | Based on observation, experiment, or measurable data |
| Replicable | Can be repeated by another researcher with same result |
| Objective | Free from researcher bias; verifiable |
| Cyclical | Each finding raises the next question |
| Original | Adds something new — concept, evidence or method |
| Generalisable | Findings apply beyond the immediate sample where possible |
7.3 Objectives of Research
A useful framework groups research objectives into four categories.
TipFour Objectives of Research
| Objective | Working purpose | Type of study |
|---|---|---|
| Exploratory | Gain familiarity with a phenomenon; achieve new insights | Pilot, formulative |
| Descriptive | Portray characteristics of a group or situation accurately | Survey, fact-finding |
| Diagnostic | Determine the frequency or association of variables | Diagnostic |
| Hypothesis-testing | Test causal relationships between variables | Experimental, analytical |
7.4 Types of Research
Research is classified along four independent dimensions.
7.4.1 By Purpose / Goal
TipPure / Basic vs Applied vs Action Research
| Type | Purpose | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Pure / Basic / Fundamental | Develop theory; advance knowledge for its own sake | Studying the nature of subatomic particles |
| Applied | Solve a specific practical problem | Designing a vaccine for a disease |
| Action | Improve practice in a specific local setting through cycles of plan-act-observe-reflect | Teacher refining classroom strategy with own students |
7.4.2 By Approach
TipQuantitative vs Qualitative
| Type | Data | Methods | When |
|---|---|---|---|
| Quantitative | Numerical | Experiment, survey, statistical analysis | “How many?”, “How much?”, “Is there a relationship?” |
| Qualitative | Textual, observational | Interview, ethnography, case study, grounded theory | “Why?”, “How?”, “What does it mean?” |
| Mixed methods | Both | Triangulation; explanatory or exploratory sequential designs | When neither alone answers the question |
7.4.3 By Nature of Data
TipEmpirical vs Conceptual vs Historical
| Type | What it does | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Empirical | Tests claims through observation and experiment | A clinical trial of a new drug |
| Conceptual | Develops or analyses concepts and theories | A philosophical analysis of justice |
| Historical | Reconstructs past events from primary and secondary sources | Studying education in ancient India |
7.4.4 By Time Dimension
TipCross-Sectional vs Longitudinal
| Type | Time | Strength |
|---|---|---|
| Cross-sectional | Data collected at one point in time | Quick snapshot; cheaper |
| Longitudinal | Data collected over time from the same subjects | Tracks change; supports causal claims |
7.5 Positivism and Post-Positivism
The official syllabus names two philosophical positions — positivism and post-positivism — that shape how researchers think about knowledge.
TipPositivism vs Post-Positivism
| Dimension | Positivism | Post-Positivism |
|---|---|---|
| Founder / advocate | Auguste Comte (19th c.) | Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn (20th c.) |
| Reality | Single, observable, measurable | Reality exists, but observation is theory-laden and fallible |
| Researcher’s role | Detached, objective observer | Acknowledges own influence and bias |
| Methods | Quantitative, experimental, hypothesis-testing | Mixed methods; falsification, refinement |
| View of theory | Theories are verified by evidence | Theories are tentatively held; cannot be proven, only falsified |
| Truth claim | Universal laws | Probable, contextual, revisable |
flowchart LR
P[Positivism<br/>Comte<br/>Single objective reality<br/>Verification] --> PP[Post-Positivism<br/>Popper, Kuhn<br/>Fallible observation<br/>Falsification]
PP --> C[Constructivism /<br/>Interpretivism<br/>Multiple realities<br/>Meaning-making]
C --> PR[Pragmatism<br/>What works<br/>Mixed methods]
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The candidate should also recognise constructivism / interpretivism (which sees knowledge as socially constructed) and pragmatism (which judges knowledge by what works in practice). These four are often presented together as research paradigms.
7.6 Variables in Research
A variable is any characteristic that can take different values across cases or time.
TipCommon Variable Roles
| Type | Role | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Independent variable | Cause; the one the researcher manipulates | Method of teaching |
| Dependent variable | Effect; the outcome measured | Student achievement score |
| Intervening / Mediating | Carries the effect from cause to outcome | Student motivation |
| Moderating | Changes the strength of the relationship | Class size |
| Extraneous / Confounding | Affects the outcome but is not part of the design | Time of day, prior knowledge |
| Control variable | An extraneous variable held constant by design | Same room, same time |
7.7 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable, declarative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
TipTypes of Hypothesis
| Type | Statement form | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Null hypothesis (H₀) | “No difference” or “no relationship” | H₀: There is no difference in mean scores between groups A and B |
| Alternative hypothesis (H₁) | “There is a difference / relationship” | H₁: There is a difference in mean scores between groups A and B |
| Directional | Specifies direction of effect | “Group A scores higher than Group B” |
| Non-directional | Specifies difference but not direction | “Groups A and B differ in scores” |
| Research / Working | The substantive prediction | “Active learning improves achievement” |
| Statistical | The form tested with a statistical test | The H₀/H₁ pair |
A good hypothesis is clear, testable, specific, conceptually adequate, related to existing theory, and free from value judgments.
7.8 Practice Questions
Q 01
Research Characteristics
Easy
Which of the following is not a characteristic of good research?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Research must be objective and free from researcher bias.
Q 02
Types of Research
Easy
Research undertaken to develop theory and advance knowledge with no immediate practical application is called:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Pure / basic / fundamental research aims to develop theory; applied research solves practical problems.
Q 03
Research Examples
Medium
Match the type of research with its example:
| (i) | Action research | (a) | Studying the nature of light |
| (ii) | Applied research | (b) | A teacher refining classroom strategy with own students |
| (iii) | Basic research | (c) | Designing a more efficient solar panel |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Action → teacher's classroom; Applied → solar panel; Basic → nature of light.
Q 04
Positivism
Easy
Positivism is most closely associated with:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Auguste Comte introduced positivism in the 19th century. Popper and Kuhn are post-positivists.
Q 05
Hypothesis
Easy
A hypothesis stating "there is no difference between the mean scores of two groups" is a:
View solution
Correct Option: B
The null hypothesis (H₀) states "no difference / no relationship".
Q 06
Variables
Easy
In an experiment on the effect of a teaching method on achievement, teaching method is the:
View solution
Correct Option: B
The independent variable is the cause manipulated by the researcher.
Q 07
Longitudinal Research
Easy
A researcher collects data from the same group of school children every two years for ten years. This is an example of:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Longitudinal designs collect data from the same subjects over time.
Q 08
Post-Positivism
Medium
Post-positivism differs from positivism primarily in that it:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Post-positivism accepts an objective reality but treats observation as fallible and theories as tentatively held.
ImportantQuick recall
- Research is systematic, logical, empirical, replicable, objective, cyclical, original, generalisable.
- Objectives: Exploratory, Descriptive, Diagnostic, Hypothesis-testing.
- By purpose: Pure / Applied / Action.
- By approach: Quantitative / Qualitative / Mixed methods.
- By time: Cross-sectional / Longitudinal.
- Paradigms: Positivism (Comte) → Post-positivism (Popper, Kuhn) → Constructivism → Pragmatism.
- Variables: Independent (cause), Dependent (effect), Mediating (carrier), Moderating (changes strength), Extraneous (uncontrolled), Control (held constant).
- Hypothesis: H₀ (null) vs H₁ (alternative); directional vs non-directional.