15  Communication: Meaning, types and characteristics of communication

15.1 What the Syllabus Covers

This syllabus head has three examined parts:

  1. Meaning of communication — what it is, etymology, definitions, elements.
  2. Types of communication — by channel, direction, formality, level, and context.
  3. Characteristics of (effective) communication — the criteria that distinguish “good” communication from mere transmission.

The most-repeated PYQ patterns are: (a) model identification (Shannon-Weaver, Berlo SMCR, Schramm), (b) type-matching (intrapersonal/interpersonal/group/mass; vertical/horizontal/diagonal/grapevine), and (c) identifying the 7 Cs of effective communication.

15.2 Meaning of Communication

15.2.1 Etymology

The word “communication” comes from the Latin communicare — “to share, to make common” — itself from communis — “common”. Etymology captures the essence: communication is the making common of an idea between two minds.

15.2.2 Five Standard Definitions

TipFive Standard Definitions
Author Definition (paraphrased)
Aristotle (4th c. BCE) “The search for all available means of persuasion” — the speaker, the speech, the audience
Harold D. Lasswell (1948) “Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect”
Wilbur Schramm (1954) “The process of establishing commonness or oneness of thought between sender and receiver”
Berelson & Steiner (1964) “The transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills … by the use of symbols”
Keith Davis “The process of passing information and understanding from one person to another”

Across all five, three ideas recur: process · shared meaning · symbols.

15.2.3 The Word’s Core Idea — “Two-Way Sharing”

Communication is not the same as information transfer. A radio broadcasting into an empty room is information output, not communication. Communication occurs only when meaning is shared — when the receiver decodes the message in a way the sender intended.

15.3 Seven Elements of the Communication Process

Every communication event has seven elements. PYQs ask candidates to name and order them.

TipSeven Elements of Communication
  1. Source / Sender / Encoder — the originator who has a message.
  2. Message — the content, encoded as symbols (words, gestures, images).
  3. Encoding — converting the idea into transmittable form.
  4. Channel / Medium — the carrier (voice, paper, screen, air).
  5. Receiver / Decoder — the person/group who decodes.
  6. Feedback — the receiver’s response back to the sender.
  7. Noise — anything that distorts the message (physical, semantic, psychological).

Some authors add Context (the situation) and Effect (the change produced) — making nine elements.

flowchart LR
  S[Sender<br/>Encoder] --> E[Encoding<br/>into Symbols]
  E --> M[Message]
  M --> C[Channel /<br/>Medium]
  C --> D[Decoding]
  D --> R[Receiver]
  R -. Feedback .-> S
  N[Noise] -.-> C
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

15.4 Classical Models of Communication

Communication theory has produced a small set of foundational models. NTA reliably asks candidates to identify them.

15.4.1 Aristotle’s Model (4th century BCE)

The earliest model. Three elements: Speaker → Speech → Audience. Aristotle further named the three appeals — Ethos (credibility), Pathos (emotion), Logos (logic). Use of model: public speaking, rhetoric, persuasion.

15.4.2 Lasswell’s Verbal Model (1948)

Harold D. Lasswell, The Structure and Function of Communication in Society, 1948. The famous formula:

TipLasswell’s Five-Question Model

WHO (communicator) · says WHAT (message) · in which CHANNEL (medium) · to WHOM (audience) · with what EFFECT (impact).

This linear model became the foundation for early mass-communication research and is sometimes called the 5W model.

15.4.3 Shannon-Weaver Model (1948–49)

Claude Shannon (1948, A Mathematical Theory of Communication) and Warren Weaver (1949) — originally for telegraph/telephone engineering, then adapted to general communication.

TipShannon-Weaver Components

Information Source → Transmitter → Channel → Receiver → Destination, with Noise acting on the channel.

Often called the “Mother of all communication models”. It introduced the concepts of encoding/decoding and noise to communication theory. Original lacks feedback; Weaver later added it.

15.4.4 Berlo’s SMCR Model (1960)

David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication, 1960. The most-tested PYQ model.

TipBerlo’s SMCR Model — The Four Components
S — Source M — Message C — Channel R — Receiver
Communication skills Content Hearing Communication skills
Attitudes Elements Seeing Attitudes
Knowledge Treatment Touching Knowledge
Social system Structure Smelling Social system
Culture Code Tasting Culture

Each of the four components has the same five sub-factors. The five sub-factors of S and R are the same words; the five sub-factors of M and C are different. The five channels are the five senses.

15.4.5 Schramm’s Model (1954)

Wilbur Schramm, “How Communication Works”, 1954. Three contributions:

TipSchramm’s Three Contributions
  • Field of experience — overlap between sender’s and receiver’s experiences is the basis of shared meaning.
  • Cyclic / circular model — communication is a two-way loop, not a one-way line.
  • Feedback — receiver’s response becomes new sender input.

Schramm is sometimes called the “Father of Communication Studies”.

15.4.6 Osgood-Schramm Circular Model (1954)

Charles Osgood + Wilbur Schramm — communication as a cycle in which each participant is both encoder and decoder, interpreting messages. Three actions: encoding · interpreting · decoding.

15.4.7 Westley-MacLean Model (1957)

Adds the gatekeeper (C) — the editor/broadcaster who selects what reaches the receiver from many sources. Useful for mass communication.

15.4.8 Newcomb’s ABX Model (1953)

Theodore Newcomb — psychological / interpersonal model. A (person) and B (person) communicate about X (an object/idea), seeking equilibrium of attitudes. Foundational for social psychology of communication.

15.4.9 Dance’s Helical Spiral Model (1967)

Frank E.X. Dance — communication is neither linear nor circular but a helix (spiral): cumulative, building on past communication and never returning to the same point. Captures development of relationships over time.

15.4.10 Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970)

Dean Barnlund — both participants are simultaneously sender and receiver; communication is a continuous transaction, not a turn-based exchange. Most modern.

15.4.11 Three Generations of Models — A Summary

TipThree Generations of Communication Models
Generation Period Best examples
Linear 1948–60 Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon-Weaver, Berlo SMCR
Interactional / Circular 1953–57 Schramm, Osgood-Schramm, Westley-MacLean, Newcomb
Transactional / Helical 1967–70 Dance helix, Barnlund

15.5 Types of Communication

Communication is classified along six axes.

flowchart TB
  C{Types of<br/>Communication} --> N[By Number<br/>Intrapersonal · Interpersonal<br/>Group · Mass]
  C --> CH[By Channel<br/>Verbal · Non-verbal · Written<br/>Visual · Audio]
  C --> D[By Direction<br/>Vertical · Horizontal<br/>Diagonal]
  C --> F[By Formality<br/>Formal · Informal<br/>Grapevine]
  C --> M[By Medium<br/>Oral · Written · Electronic]
  C --> CX[By Context<br/>Organisational · Public<br/>Cross-cultural · Mediated]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

15.5.1 By Number of Participants

TipFour Levels by Number
Level Definition Example
Intrapersonal Within oneself Thinking, journaling, self-talk
Interpersonal Two people Conversation, dialogue
Group / Small group 3–20 people Team meeting, classroom group
Public One-to-many, same place Lecture, speech
Mass One-to-many, mediated TV, newspaper, social media

15.5.2 By Channel / Code

TipBy Channel
  • Verbal — uses words (spoken or written).
  • Non-verbal — body language, gestures, facial expression, eye contact, posture, paralanguage.
  • Written — letters, emails, reports.
  • Visual — images, charts, maps, signage.
  • Audio — radio, podcast, voice.
  • Audio-visual — film, video, TV.
  • Digital / Electronic — chat, social media, video call.

(Detailed coverage of verbal vs non-verbal is in Topic 15.)

15.5.3 By Direction (Within Organisations)

TipDirection of Communication
Direction Definition Example
Downward Superior → subordinate Orders, instructions, performance reviews
Upward Subordinate → superior Reports, complaints, suggestions
Horizontal / Lateral Same level Inter-departmental coordination
Diagonal / Crosswise Across different levels & departments Project teams, task forces
External Within ↔︎ outside the organisation Customers, regulators, media

15.5.4 By Formality

TipFormal, Informal, Grapevine
Type Definition
Formal Through official, prescribed channels (hierarchy, policy)
Informal / Grapevine Unofficial, social, often faster but less reliable
Cluster chain One person tells several, each of whom tells a few — most common grapevine pattern (Keith Davis)
Single-strand chain One-to-one along a line
Gossip chain One tells many indiscriminately
Probability chain Random transmission

Keith Davis identified the four grapevine patterns above (1953).

15.5.5 By Medium

Oral / written / electronic / visual / audio-visual. Already implicit above.

15.5.6 By Context

Organisational · educational · health · legal · cross-cultural · mediated · political · therapeutic · scientific.

15.6 Characteristics of Effective Communication — The 7 Cs

Cutlip and Center introduced the Seven Cs of effective communication in Effective Public Relations (1952). The 7 Cs remain the most-tested PYQ checklist.

TipThe Seven Cs
C Meaning
Clarity Free of ambiguity; precise meaning
Conciseness Brief; no padding
Concreteness Specific facts, examples, evidence
Correctness Accurate facts, grammar, spelling
Coherence Logical structure; connected ideas
Completeness All necessary information included
Courtesy Respectful tone; consideration for receiver

Some textbooks add an 8th C — Consideration (audience-oriented), or Credibility.

15.6.1 Other Characteristic Lists

TipOther Frameworks Worth Knowing
  • 5W + 1H — Who · What · When · Where · Why · How.
  • AIDA — Attention · Interest · Desire · Action (used in marketing).
  • KISS — Keep It Simple and Straightforward.
  • YOU attitude — focus on receiver, not on self.
  • Empathy — put yourself in the receiver’s shoes.

15.7 Functions of Communication

15.7.1 Lasswell’s Three Functions (1948)

TipLasswell’s Three Functions
  1. Surveillance of the environment — informing.
  2. Correlation of parts of society — coordinating, interpreting.
  3. Transmission of social heritage — educating, socialising.

Charles R. Wright (1959) added a fourth — Entertainment.

15.7.2 Roman Jakobson’s Six Functions (1960)

Roman Jakobson mapped each communication function to one element:

TipJakobson’s Six Language Functions
Function Focus on What it does
Referential Context Facts, information
Emotive / Expressive Sender Speaker’s feelings
Conative Receiver Command, persuasion
Poetic / Aesthetic Message itself Style, form
Phatic Channel “Hello?” — keeping channel open
Metalingual Code Language about language

15.8 The Communication Process and Its Barriers

(Detailed in Topic 16 — Barriers.) Brief recall:

TipFour Common Barrier Categories
  • Physical — noise, distance, defective equipment.
  • Semantic / Linguistic — language differences, jargon, ambiguity.
  • Psychological / Emotional — anxiety, prejudice, mood.
  • Cultural / Social — values, norms, status.
  • Organisational — hierarchy, info overload, status differences.

15.9 Communication, Education, and Society

TipEducation-Linked Notes
  • Teaching is fundamentally a communication act — Topic 1’s Three Variables (teacher, learner, content) map to S, R, M.
  • Flanders Interaction Analysis (Topic 1, 1960) is a communication-observation system.
  • NEP-2020 explicitly identifies communication skills as one of “21st-century skills” to be embedded across the curriculum.
  • The Big Five OCEAN trait of Extraversion is strongly tied to interpersonal-communication style (Topic 2).
  • NCF 2005 introduced communication as a foundational competency in schools.

15.10 Theory Anchors at a Glance

TipPersons, Years and Key Ideas
Person Year Contribution PYQ hook
Aristotle 4th c. BCE Speaker-Speech-Audience; ethos-pathos-logos Earliest model
Harold Lasswell 1948 5W model; 3 functions “Who-what-channel-whom-effect”
Claude Shannon & Warren Weaver 1948–49 Mathematical model; introduced “noise” “Mother of all models”
Wilbur Schramm 1954 Field of experience; cyclic model “Father of Communication Studies”
Charles Osgood + Schramm 1954 Encoding-interpreting-decoding cycle Interactional model
Westley & MacLean 1957 Gatekeeper concept Mass-comm model
Theodore Newcomb 1953 ABX model — equilibrium of attitudes Interpersonal social psychology
David K. Berlo 1960 SMCR — 4 components × 5 sub-factors Most-tested model
Roman Jakobson 1960 6 language functions Linguistic anchor
Frank Dance 1967 Helical / spiral model Cumulative communication
Dean Barnlund 1970 Transactional model Simultaneous send/receive
Cutlip & Center 1952 7 Cs of effective communication Effectiveness checklist
Keith Davis 1953 Grapevine — 4 patterns (cluster, single-strand, gossip, probability) Informal communication
Charles R. Wright 1959 Added 4th function — Entertainment Mass-comm functions

15.11 Practice Questions

Q 01 Etymology Easy

The word "communication" derives from the Latin word communicare, which literally means:

  • ATo speak
  • BTo share, to make common
  • CTo listen carefully
  • DTo write
View solution
Correct Option: B
communicare (Latin) = "to share, to make common"; from communis = "common".
Q 02 Lasswell Medium

"Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect" is a famous formula by:

  • ASchramm
  • BBerlo
  • CLasswell
  • DAristotle
View solution
Correct Option: C
Harold D. Lasswell, 1948, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society". The 5W model.
Q 03 Shannon-Weaver Medium

The Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948), which introduced the concepts of encoding/decoding and noise, was given by:

  • ABerlo
  • BShannon and Weaver
  • CSchramm and Osgood
  • DNewcomb
View solution
Correct Option: B
Claude Shannon (1948) + Warren Weaver (1949). Often called the "mother of all communication models".
Q 04 SMCR Medium

In Berlo's SMCR model (1960), the letters stand for:

  • ASender · Mode · Code · Receiver
  • BSource · Message · Channel · Receiver
  • CSymbol · Medium · Cipher · Reader
  • DSpeaker · Message · Content · Recipient
View solution
Correct Option: B
SMCR = Source · Message · Channel · Receiver. Each has five sub-factors.
Q 05 SMCR Hard

In Berlo's SMCR model, the "Channel" comprises which five elements?

  • AContent · Elements · Treatment · Structure · Code
  • BThe five senses — Hearing, Seeing, Touching, Smelling, Tasting
  • CSkills, Attitudes, Knowledge, Social system, Culture
  • DPrint · Audio · Video · Online · Live
View solution
Correct Option: B
Berlo's Channel = five senses. C is the sub-factor list for Source and Receiver; A is for Message.
Q 06 Schramm Medium

The concept of "field of experience" — the overlap between sender's and receiver's experiences — was given by:

  • ALasswell
  • BSchramm
  • CNewcomb
  • DAristotle
View solution
Correct Option: B
Wilbur Schramm (1954). Communication only succeeds where fields of experience overlap.
Q 07 Helix Hard

The helical / spiral model of communication, which captures the cumulative nature of communication over time, was proposed in 1967 by:

  • ADean Barnlund
  • BFrank Dance
  • CWilbur Schramm
  • DTheodore Newcomb
View solution
Correct Option: B
Frank E.X. Dance, 1967 — the helical model. Communication never returns to the same point.
Q 08 Transactional Medium

"Both participants are simultaneously sender and receiver" is the central insight of which model?

  • ALinear / Shannon-Weaver
  • BBerlo SMCR
  • CBarnlund's Transactional
  • DAristotle's
View solution
Correct Option: C
Barnlund (1970) — the transactional model. Most modern view.
Q 09 Type Easy

When you "think to yourself" or talk silently inside your head, this is:

  • AInterpersonal communication
  • BIntrapersonal communication
  • CGroup communication
  • DMass communication
View solution
Correct Option: B
Intrapersonal = within oneself.
Q 10 Direction Medium

A staff member sends a suggestion to the department head. Within the organisation, this communication is:

  • ADownward
  • BUpward
  • CHorizontal
  • DDiagonal
View solution
Correct Option: B
Subordinate → superior = upward.
Q 11 Grapevine Hard

The four patterns of the grapevine — cluster, single-strand, gossip, and probability — were identified by:

  • ABerlo
  • BKeith Davis
  • CSchramm
  • DWestley
View solution
Correct Option: B
Keith Davis, 1953. The cluster chain is the most common in real organisations.
Q 12 7 Cs Medium

Which of the following is NOT one of the "7 Cs" of effective communication?

  • AClarity
  • BConciseness
  • CConfidentiality
  • DCourtesy
View solution
Correct Option: C
7 Cs (Cutlip & Center, 1952): Clarity · Conciseness · Concreteness · Correctness · Coherence · Completeness · Courtesy. Confidentiality is an ethical principle, not a C.
Q 13 7 Cs Hard

"Specific facts, examples, and evidence rather than vague generalities" is the Communication-C of:

  • AClarity
  • BConciseness
  • CConcreteness
  • DCoherence
View solution
Correct Option: C
Concreteness = specific facts and evidence.
Q 14 Jakobson Hard

Roman Jakobson identified how many functions of language?

  • AThree
  • BFour
  • CSix
  • DSeven
View solution
Correct Option: C
Six: Referential · Emotive · Conative · Poetic · Phatic · Metalingual.
Q 15 Phatic Hard

"Hello? Are you there?" — checking whether the channel is open — illustrates which of Jakobson's six functions?

  • AReferential
  • BPhatic
  • CConative
  • DMetalingual
View solution
Correct Option: B
Phatic = channel-focus; keeping the channel open ("Hi", "Hello", "Right?").
Q 16 Functions Medium

Lasswell identified three functions of mass communication. Which fourth function was added by Charles Wright (1959)?

  • APersuasion
  • BEntertainment
  • CInformation
  • DAdvocacy
View solution
Correct Option: B
Lasswell: Surveillance · Correlation · Transmission. Wright added Entertainment.
Q 17 Aristotle Hard

Aristotle's three modes of persuasion are:

  • AEthos, Pathos, Logos
  • BMind, Body, Soul
  • CThesis, Antithesis, Synthesis
  • DSpeaker, Audience, Message
View solution
Correct Option: A
Ethos (credibility) · Pathos (emotion) · Logos (logic) — Aristotle's Rhetoric.
Q 18 Match Medium

Match each theorist with their model:

(i) Shannon-Weaver (a) Transactional
(ii) Berlo (b) Linear with noise
(iii) Schramm (c) SMCR
(iv) Barnlund (d) Field of experience / circular
  • A(i)-b, (ii)-c, (iii)-d, (iv)-a
  • B(i)-a, (ii)-b, (iii)-c, (iv)-d
  • C(i)-c, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-b
  • D(i)-d, (ii)-a, (iii)-b, (iv)-c
View solution
Correct Option: A
Shannon-Weaver → linear with noise; Berlo → SMCR; Schramm → field of experience / circular; Barnlund → transactional.
Q 19 Gatekeeper Hard

The "gatekeeper" in mass-communication models was given by:

  • AWestley and MacLean
  • BBerlo
  • CLasswell
  • DSchramm
View solution
Correct Option: A
Westley & MacLean, 1957. Their model adds C — the gatekeeper / channel-controller (editor, broadcaster).
Q 20 Element Medium

In the communication process, the receiver's response back to the sender is called:

  • AEncoding
  • BDecoding
  • CFeedback
  • DNoise
View solution
Correct Option: C
Feedback = receiver's response back to sender. Closes the loop.

15.12 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Etymology: Latin communicare = “to share, to make common”.
  • 5 definitions to remember: Aristotle (persuasion) · Lasswell (5W) · Schramm (oneness of thought) · Berelson & Steiner (transmission via symbols) · Keith Davis (passing information and understanding).
  • 7 elements: Sender · Encoding · Message · Channel · Decoding · Receiver · Feedback. (+ Noise, Context, Effect).
  • Aristotle: Speaker → Speech → Audience; Ethos, Pathos, Logos.
  • Lasswell (1948): WHO · WHAT · CHANNEL · WHOM · EFFECT. 3 functions: Surveillance · Correlation · Transmission. Wright (1959) added Entertainment.
  • Shannon-Weaver (1948–49): Source-Transmitter-Channel-Receiver-Destination + Noise. “Mother of all models.” Introduced encoding/decoding.
  • Schramm (1954): “Father of communication studies.” Field of experience; circular/cyclic.
  • Osgood-Schramm (1954): Encoding-Interpreting-Decoding cycle.
  • Westley-MacLean (1957): Gatekeeper concept.
  • Newcomb (1953): ABX model — A, B communicate about X; equilibrium of attitudes.
  • Berlo SMCR (1960): Source · Message · Channel · Receiver. Each has 5 sub-factors. Channel = 5 senses. S & R sub-factors = Skills, Attitudes, Knowledge, Social system, Culture. M sub-factors = Content, Elements, Treatment, Structure, Code.
  • Jakobson (1960): 6 language functions — Referential · Emotive · Conative · Poetic · Phatic · Metalingual.
  • Dance helix (1967): cumulative spiral.
  • Barnlund (1970): transactional — simultaneously sender and receiver.
  • 3 generations of models: Linear (1948–60) · Interactional/Circular (1953–57) · Transactional/Helical (1967–70).
  • Types by number: Intrapersonal · Interpersonal · Group · Public · Mass.
  • Types by channel: Verbal · Non-verbal · Written · Visual · Audio · Digital.
  • Types by direction: Downward · Upward · Horizontal · Diagonal · External.
  • Types by formality: Formal · Informal/Grapevine.
  • Keith Davis (1953) — 4 grapevine patterns: Cluster (most common) · Single-strand · Gossip · Probability.
  • Cutlip & Center 7 Cs (1952): Clarity · Conciseness · Concreteness · Correctness · Coherence · Completeness · Courtesy. (+ optional Consideration / Credibility.)
  • AIDA marketing: Attention · Interest · Desire · Action.
  • 5W + 1H · KISS · YOU-attitude · Empathy.
  • 4 barrier categories (preview of Topic 16): Physical · Semantic · Psychological · Cultural/Social · Organisational.