14  Communication: Meaning, Types and Characteristics

14.1 Meaning of Communication

The word communication comes from the Latin communicare — “to share, to make common”. Communication is the process by which information, ideas, feelings or attitudes are transmitted from a sender to a receiver through a chosen channel, with the intention of producing a shared understanding.

TipInfluential Definitions of Communication
Author Definition
Wilbur Schramm “Communication is the sharing of an orientation toward a set of informational signs.”
Berelson & Steiner “The transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, etc., by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs.”
Louis A. Allen “Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another.”
Keith Davis “The process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.”
Newman & Summer “The exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.”

14.2 The Process and Elements of Communication

Every communication act involves seven elements working as a system.

TipSeven Elements of the Communication Process
Element What it does
Sender / Source Originates the message; encodes thought into symbols
Encoding Converting thought into language, gesture or signal
Message The encoded content — words, symbols, images
Channel / Medium The carrier — voice, paper, screen, body
Receiver Decodes the message; constructs meaning
Decoding Converting symbols back into thought
Feedback Receiver’s response confirming understanding
Noise Any disturbance that distorts the message 

flowchart LR
  S[Sender] --> E[Encoding]
  E --> M[Message]
  M --> C[Channel]
  C --> D[Decoding]
  D --> R[Receiver]
  R -. Feedback .-> S
  N[Noise] -. Distorts .-> C
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14.3 Models of Communication

Several classical models recur in NTA stems.

TipFive Foundational Models
Model Year Key idea
Aristotle’s Model ~ 300 BCE Speaker → Speech → Audience; rhetorical view
Lasswell’s Model 1948 “Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect”
Shannon and Weaver Model 1949 Source → Transmitter → Channel (with Noise) → Receiver → Destination; linear, mathematical
Schramm’s Model 1954 Circular; sender and receiver continuously exchange roles; “field of experience” overlap
Berlo’s SMCR Model 1960 Source → Message → Channel → Receiver; emphasises encoding skills, attitudes, knowledge 

flowchart LR
  SR[Source] --> TR[Transmitter] --> CH[Channel] --> RC[Receiver] --> DS[Destination]
  NS[Noise] -.-> CH
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The Shannon–Weaver model introduced noise as a formal variable. Berlo’s SMCR model is the most cited in Indian textbooks because it explicitly names communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system and culture as factors that influence both source and receiver.

14.4 Types of Communication

Communication is classified along several independent dimensions.

14.4.1 By Mode

TipVerbal vs Non-Verbal
Type What it uses Examples
Verbal Words — spoken or written Lecture, conversation, letter, email
Non-Verbal Body, voice quality, space, time, appearance Gesture, tone, eye contact, posture, attire

14.4.2 By Number of Participants

TipLevels by Audience Size
Level Description Example
Intrapersonal Communication within oneself Self-talk, reflection, decision-making
Interpersonal Between two persons Conversation, interview
Group Within a small group (3–20) Team meeting, classroom discussion
Public One speaker → many Lecture, political speech
Mass One source → very large, dispersed audience through media Television, newspaper, social media

14.4.3 By Direction (in Organisations)

TipDirections of Organisational Communication
Direction Flow Typical content
Downward Superior → subordinate Instructions, policies
Upward Subordinate → superior Reports, suggestions, grievances
Horizontal / Lateral Peer to peer Coordination, problem-solving
Diagonal / Cross Across departments and levels Project teams

14.4.4 By Channel of Authorisation

TipFormal vs Informal
Type What it is Example
Formal Through official structure and channels Memo, official letter, board meeting
Informal / Grapevine Outside official channels Office gossip, casual chat

The grapevine has four common patterns: single strand (one to next to next), gossip (one tells many), probability (random), and cluster (selected persons each tell selected others).

flowchart TB
  C[Communication] --> M[By Mode]
  C --> N[By Number]
  C --> D[By Direction]
  C --> A[By Authorisation]
  M --> M1[Verbal]
  M --> M2[Non-Verbal]
  N --> N1[Intrapersonal]
  N --> N2[Interpersonal]
  N --> N3[Group · Public · Mass]
  D --> D1[Downward · Upward · Horizontal · Diagonal]
  A --> A1[Formal]
  A --> A2[Informal / Grapevine]
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14.5 Characteristics of Communication

TipEight Characteristics of Communication
Characteristic What it means
Two-way process Always involves a sender and a receiver
Continuous Goes on as long as the participants are in contact
Dynamic Changes with context, audience, channel
Pervasive Occurs at every level of human interaction
Mutual understanding Aim is shared meaning, not mere transmission
Goal-oriented Has a purpose — inform, persuade, instruct, entertain
Symbolic Uses words, gestures, signs to represent ideas
Inter-disciplinary Draws on linguistics, psychology, sociology, technology

14.6 Functions of Communication

TipSix Functions of Communication
Function What it does Example
Information Conveys facts, news News bulletin
Education Builds knowledge and skill Classroom teaching
Persuasion Changes attitude or behaviour Advertisement
Entertainment Provides recreation Film, music
Integration Builds shared identity, social cohesion National anthem
Cultural transmission Passes values across generations Folk tales, festivals

14.7 Communication Networks

In groups, the pattern of who talks to whom matters.

TipFive Common Communication Networks
Network Structure Speed Accuracy
Chain Linear (A → B → C → D) Moderate Low (errors accumulate)
Y Like Y; one node sends to two Moderate Moderate
Wheel All members send to one central hub Fast High
Circle Each member connected to two adjacent members Slow Moderate
All-channel / Star Every member connected to every other Slow but rich High; high satisfaction

14.8 Practice Questions

Q 01 Etymology Easy

The word "communication" derives from the Latin word communicare, which means:

  • ATo send a message
  • BTo share, to make common
  • CTo inform
  • DTo persuade
View solution
Correct Option: B
Communicare = to share, to make common. Communication is fundamentally about creating shared meaning.
Q 02 Berlo's Model Easy

In Berlo's SMCR model of communication, the letters S, M, C, R stand for:

  • ASource, Message, Channel, Receiver
  • BSender, Method, Code, Response
  • CSpeaker, Material, Carrier, Reader
  • DSignal, Memory, Channel, Result
View solution
Correct Option: A
Berlo (1960): Source → Message → Channel → Receiver.
Q 03 Models Medium

The mathematical model of communication that introduced "noise" as a formal element was developed by:

  • AWilbur Schramm
  • BDavid Berlo
  • CShannon and Weaver
  • DAristotle
View solution
Correct Option: C
Shannon and Weaver (1949) introduced the linear mathematical model with noise as a formal variable.
Q 04 Lasswell's Model Medium

"Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect" — this five-question framework was proposed by:

  • AAristotle
  • BHarold Lasswell
  • CWilbur Schramm
  • DMarshall McLuhan
View solution
Correct Option: B
Harold Lasswell (1948) formulated this five-question framework in his classic essay on the structure and function of communication.
Q 05 Self-talk Easy

Communication that takes place within an individual — for example, internal reflection or self-talk — is called:

  • AInterpersonal
  • BIntrapersonal
  • CGroup
  • DMass
View solution
Correct Option: B
Intrapersonal = within oneself; interpersonal = between two persons.
Q 06 Grapevine Medium

The "grapevine" in organisational communication refers to:

  • AFormal hierarchical channels of communication
  • BInformal channels through which unofficial information flows
  • CA type of mass-media network
  • DA method of upward communication only
View solution
Correct Option: B
The grapevine is the informal network — gossip, rumour, casual chat — operating outside official channels.
Q 07 Communication Networks Medium

In a "wheel" communication network:

  • AAll members communicate with all others equally
  • BAll communication passes through one central hub
  • CMembers communicate only with the two adjacent members
  • DThere is no defined channel
View solution
Correct Option: B
In a wheel network, all members send to one central hub — fast and high-accuracy but low satisfaction for non-hub members.
Q 08 Direction of Flow Easy

A junior faculty member sending a research proposal to the head of department is an example of:

  • ADownward communication
  • BUpward communication
  • CHorizontal communication
  • DDiagonal communication
View solution
Correct Option: B
Upward communication flows from subordinate to superior — reports, suggestions, grievances, proposals.
ImportantQuick recall
  • Communicare = “to share, make common”.
  • Process: Sender → Encoding → Message → Channel → Decoding → Receiver → Feedback (with Noise).
  • Models: Aristotle (rhetorical), Shannon-Weaver (linear with noise, 1949), Berlo’s SMCR (1960), Schramm (circular, 1954), Lasswell (“Who–What–Channel–Whom–Effect”, 1948).
  • Types by number: Intra · Inter · Group · Public · Mass.
  • Direction: Downward · Upward · Horizontal · Diagonal.
  • Authorisation: Formal vs Informal (Grapevine).
  • Networks: Chain · Y · Wheel · Circle · All-channel/Star.
  • Functions: Information, Education, Persuasion, Entertainment, Integration, Cultural transmission.