39  Human and environment interaction: Anthropogenic activities and their impacts on environment

39.1 What the Syllabus Covers

The environment comprises all the conditions — physical, chemical, and biological — that surround a living organism. Human activity shapes the environment and is in turn shaped by it. The discipline that studies this two-way relationship is ecology.

PYQs: (a) define ecosystem, biosphere, biome, biotic/abiotic, (b) identify the anthropogenic activities (deforestation, urbanisation, industrialisation, agriculture, fossil-fuel burning), (c) name environmental movements in India (Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada, Appiko), (d) identify the Anthropocene concept, and (e) recognise Indian environment thinkers (Sundarlal Bahuguna, Medha Patkar, Vandana Shiva, Anil Agarwal).

39.2 Foundational Vocabulary

TipFoundational Vocabulary
Term Meaning
Environment All external conditions affecting an organism
Ecology Study of relationships between organisms and their environment (term: Ernst Haeckel, 1866)
Ecosystem Community + physical environment functioning as a unit (Tansley, 1935)
Biome Large geographic region defined by climate and vegetation
Biosphere Sum of all ecosystems; layer of Earth where life exists
Biotic Living components (plants, animals, microorganisms)
Abiotic Non-living components (water, light, temperature, soil)
Habitat Physical place where an organism lives
Niche Functional role of an organism in its ecosystem
Population All organisms of the same species in an area
Community All populations interacting in an area
Anthropogenic Caused by humans

39.2.1 Components of an Ecosystem

TipEcosystem Components
  • Producers (Autotrophs) — plants, algae (photosynthesis).
  • Consumers (Heterotrophs) — Primary (herbivores), Secondary (carnivores), Tertiary (top carnivores).
  • Decomposers (Saprotrophs) — bacteria, fungi.
  • Abiotic — sunlight, water, soil, atmosphere, climate, minerals.

39.2.2 Food Chain and Food Web

TipFood Chain and Web
  • Food chain — linear sequence of who eats whom: Producer → Primary consumer → Secondary consumer → Tertiary consumer → Decomposer.
  • Food web — interconnected food chains.
  • Trophic level — energy level in a food chain.
  • 10 % rule (Lindeman, 1942) — only ~10 % of energy passes to the next trophic level.
  • Biomagnification — concentration of pollutants (e.g., DDT) increases up the chain.
  • Bioaccumulation — concentration in a single organism’s tissue over time.

39.2.3 Ecological Pyramids

TipThree Ecological Pyramids
  • Pyramid of numbers — number of organisms at each trophic level.
  • Pyramid of biomass — mass at each level.
  • Pyramid of energy — energy flow at each level. Always upright.

39.3 The Anthropocene — Humans as a Geological Force

TipThe Anthropocene Concept
  • Proposed by atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen (Nobel laureate) in 2000 with biologist Eugene Stoermer.
  • Names a proposed geological epoch in which human activity is the dominant influence on climate and the environment.
  • Suggested start dates: agricultural revolution (~10,000 years ago), Industrial Revolution (~1800), or “Great Acceleration” (~1950).
  • In 2024, the International Commission on Stratigraphy rejected formal adoption of the Anthropocene as a geological epoch, while accepting it as a useful conceptual term.

39.4 Major Anthropogenic Activities

TipMajor Anthropogenic Drivers
Activity Impact
Deforestation Habitat loss, soil erosion, climate impact, carbon release
Industrialisation Air, water, soil pollution; resource depletion
Urbanisation Habitat fragmentation, heat islands, waste, runoff
Agriculture Soil degradation, fertiliser runoff, pesticide pollution, water use, methane
Fossil-fuel burning CO₂, NOₓ, SOₓ, particulates → climate change, acid rain
Mining Land degradation, water pollution, toxic waste
Overfishing Marine ecosystem collapse
Damming and water diversion Hydrological change, displacement
Plastic and chemical pollution Persistent organic pollutants, microplastics
Invasive species introduction Biodiversity loss
Light, noise, thermal pollution Behavioural disruption

39.4.1 IPAT and Drivers

TipIPAT Equation (Ehrlich and Holdren, 1971)

Impact = Population × Affluence × Technology.

Environmental impact depends on three factors. Kaya identity (1990) extends this to climate: CO₂ = Population × GDP/person × Energy/GDP × CO₂/Energy.

39.5 Population Pressure

TipPopulation and Environment
  • Malthus (1798) — Population grows geometrically; food arithmetically → “Malthusian catastrophe”.
  • Demographic transition — High birth/death → High birth/Low death (rapid growth) → Low birth/Low death.
  • World population: 1 billion 1804 → 8 billion 2022.
  • India: most populous country (~1.42 billion), surpassed China in 2023.
  • National Family Planning Programme — India 1952, first national plan globally.
  • National Population Policy — India 2000.

39.6 Major Environmental Movements in India

TipMajor Indian Environmental Movements
Movement Year Location Cause Lead figures
Bishnoi Movement 1730 Khejarli, Rajasthan Protect Khejri trees from felling Amrita Devi Bishnoi (363 lives)
Chipko Movement 1973 Uttarakhand (Garhwal) Forest protection by tree-hugging Sundarlal Bahuguna, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Gaura Devi
Save Silent Valley 1973–85 Kerala Stop hydroelectric project KSSP, Romulus Whitaker
Jungle Bachao Andolan 1980s Singhbhum, Jharkhand Stop sal forest destruction Tribal communities
Appiko Movement 1983 Karnataka (Western Ghats) Forest conservation (Kannada Chipko) Pandurang Hegde
Narmada Bachao Andolan 1985 onwards Narmada Valley Sardar Sarovar dam displacement Medha Patkar, Baba Amte, Arundhati Roy
Tehri Dam Andolan 1990s Uttarakhand Stop Tehri dam Sundarlal Bahuguna
Navdanya 1991 Across India Seed sovereignty, biodiversity Vandana Shiva
POSCO Resistance 2005–17 Odisha Steel project displacement Local Adivasi communities
Niyamgiri Bachao 2010s Odisha Vedanta bauxite mining; sacred land Dongria Kondh tribe
Aarey forest movement 2019 Mumbai Stop metro shed in Aarey colony Citizens

39.6.1 Key Environmental Thinkers in India

TipIndian Environmental Thinkers
  • Sundarlal Bahuguna (1927–2021) — Chipko, Tehri activist; “ecology is permanent economy”.
  • Chandi Prasad Bhatt — Chipko; Right Livelihood Award.
  • Medha Patkar — Narmada Bachao Andolan.
  • Baba Amte (1914–2008) — Anandwan, NBA.
  • Vandana Shiva — Navdanya; ecofeminism.
  • Anil Agarwal — Founder, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE); State of India’s Environment reports.
  • Sunita Narain — CSE Director, Down to Earth editor.
  • M.S. Swaminathan (1925–2023) — Father of Indian Green Revolution; sustainable agriculture.
  • Salim Ali — “Birdman of India”; ornithology.
  • Madhav Gadgil — Ecologist; Western Ghats panel.

39.7 Global Environmental Thinkers and Books

TipFoundational Books and Thinkers
  • Rachel Carson — Silent Spring (1962) — pesticide impacts; sparked modern environmentalism.
  • Paul Ehrlich — The Population Bomb (1968).
  • Garrett Hardin — Tragedy of the Commons (1968).
  • Donella Meadows et al. — The Limits to Growth (Club of Rome, 1972).
  • Aldo Leopold — A Sand County Almanac (1949) — Land Ethic.
  • James Lovelock — Gaia Hypothesis (1972).
  • E.F. Schumacher — Small is Beautiful (1973).
  • Elinor Ostrom — Governing the Commons (1990) — first woman Economics Nobel.
  • Paul Crutzen — Anthropocene; ozone-layer Nobel (1995).
  • Wangari Maathai — Green Belt Movement, Kenya; Nobel Peace 2004.
  • Greta Thunberg — Climate activism.

39.8 Ecosystem Services and Their Loss

TipFour Categories of Ecosystem Services (MEA 2005)

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005: 1. Provisioning — food, water, fibre, fuel, medicines. 2. Regulating — climate, flood, disease, water quality. 3. Cultural — spiritual, recreational, aesthetic. 4. Supporting — soil formation, nutrient cycling, photosynthesis.

39.9 Biogeochemical Cycles

TipMajor Biogeochemical Cycles
  • Carbon cycle — photosynthesis ↔︎ respiration; CO₂ in atmosphere, oceans, biota, sediments.
  • Nitrogen cycle — N₂ → nitrate via nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium); legume symbiosis.
  • Phosphorus cycle — rocks → soil → plants; no atmospheric phase.
  • Water (hydrologic) cycle — evaporation, transpiration, precipitation.
  • Oxygen cycle — coupled with carbon and nitrogen.
  • Sulphur cycle — affected by fossil-fuel burning → acid rain.

39.10 Anthropogenic Disruption of Cycles

TipAnthropogenic Disruptions
  • Carbon — fossil-fuel burning; ~420 ppm atmospheric CO₂ (vs ~280 pre-industrial).
  • Nitrogen — Haber-Bosch fertilisers (Fritz Haber, 1908) released massive reactive N → eutrophication.
  • Phosphorus — mining for fertilisers → run-off and eutrophication.
  • Water — overuse, damming, groundwater depletion.
  • Biodiversity loss — current extinction rate ~100-1000× background = sixth mass extinction.

39.11 Conservation Approaches

TipTwo Modes of Conservation
  • In-situ — protect species in their natural habitat. Examples: National parks (106+ in India), Wildlife sanctuaries (~565), Biosphere reserves (18), Tiger reserves (~55), Ramsar wetlands (~89).
  • Ex-situ — outside natural habitat. Examples: Botanical gardens, zoos, seed banks (NBPGR), gene banks, cryopreservation.

39.11.1 Famous Indian Conservation Programmes

TipIndian Conservation Programmes
  • Project Tiger — 1973 (Indira Gandhi); now 55+ tiger reserves.
  • Project Elephant — 1992.
  • Project Crocodile — 1975.
  • One-horned Rhino conservation — Kaziranga, Assam.
  • Vulture conservation — 2006; Diclofenac ban.
  • Gangetic Dolphin — National Aquatic Animal (2009); Project Dolphin (2020).
  • Snow Leopard Project (2009).
  • Cheetah reintroduction — Kuno NP, MP (2022).
  • Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act — 2016.

39.12 Theory Anchors

TipPersons, Years, Key Ideas
Person Year Contribution
Ernst Haeckel 1866 Coined “ecology”
Arthur Tansley 1935 Coined “ecosystem”
Raymond Lindeman 1942 10% energy rule
Rachel Carson 1962 Silent Spring
Paul Ehrlich 1968 The Population Bomb; IPAT (with Holdren 1971)
Garrett Hardin 1968 Tragedy of the Commons
Donella Meadows 1972 Limits to Growth
James Lovelock 1972 Gaia Hypothesis
Elinor Ostrom 1990 Governing the Commons (Nobel 2009)
Paul Crutzen 2000 Anthropocene (1995 ozone Nobel)
MEA 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Sundarlal Bahuguna 1973 Chipko
Medha Patkar 1985 Narmada Bachao
Vandana Shiva 1991 Navdanya
Anil Agarwal & Sunita Narain 1980s onwards CSE; State of India’s Environment

39.13 Practice Questions

Q 01 Ecosystem Easy

The term "ecosystem" was coined in 1935 by:

  • AErnst Haeckel
  • BArthur Tansley
  • CRaymond Lindeman
  • DRachel Carson
View solution
Correct Option: B
Arthur Tansley, 1935. Haeckel (1866) coined "ecology".
Q 02 Ecology Medium

The word "ecology" was coined in 1866 by:

  • AErnst Haeckel
  • BCharles Darwin
  • CJames Watson
  • DLinnaeus
View solution
Correct Option: A
Ernst Haeckel, German biologist. Oikos + logos.
Q 03 10% rule Hard

The "10 % rule" of energy transfer between trophic levels was proposed by:

  • ALindeman, 1942
  • BTansley, 1935
  • CCarson, 1962
  • DOdum, 1953
View solution
Correct Option: A
Raymond Lindeman, 1942. Only ~10 % of energy moves up one trophic level.
Q 04 Anthropocene Medium

The term "Anthropocene" — the human-dominated geological epoch — was popularised in 2000 by:

  • APaul Crutzen
  • BJames Lovelock
  • CRachel Carson
  • DAldo Leopold
View solution
Correct Option: A
Paul Crutzen (with Eugene Stoermer), 2000.
Q 05 Carson Medium

Rachel Carson's 1962 book *Silent Spring* is famous for documenting the impact of:

  • APlastic pollution
  • BPesticides (DDT)
  • CClimate change
  • DNuclear radiation
View solution
Correct Option: B
Silent Spring documented impacts of DDT and other pesticides. Sparked modern environmentalism.
Q 06 Chipko Easy

The Chipko movement (1973) was led in Uttarakhand by:

  • AMedha Patkar
  • BSundarlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt
  • CVandana Shiva
  • DPandurang Hegde
View solution
Correct Option: B
Sundarlal Bahuguna + Chandi Prasad Bhatt; Gaura Devi led women in Reni village.
Q 07 Narmada Medium

The Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985) was led by:

  • AMedha Patkar
  • BSunderlal Bahuguna
  • CVandana Shiva
  • DAnil Agarwal
View solution
Correct Option: A
Medha Patkar (joined by Baba Amte, Arundhati Roy).
Q 08 Appiko Hard

The Appiko movement (1983), the Karnataka counterpart of Chipko, was led by:

  • APandurang Hegde
  • BChandi Prasad Bhatt
  • CAnil Agarwal
  • DVandana Shiva
View solution
Correct Option: A
Pandurang Hegde, Karnataka 1983. "Appiko" = to embrace in Kannada.
Q 09 Bishnoi Hard

The world's earliest recorded environmental movement (1730), where 363 Bishnois died to protect Khejri trees, took place at:

  • AKhejarli, Rajasthan
  • BReni, Uttarakhand
  • CSilent Valley, Kerala
  • DSinghbhum, Jharkhand
View solution
Correct Option: A
Khejarli, Rajasthan, 1730. Led by Amrita Devi Bishnoi.
Q 10 IPAT Hard

The IPAT equation — Impact = Population × Affluence × Technology — was proposed in 1971 by:

  • AEhrlich and Holdren
  • BCarson and Lovelock
  • CMeadows and Hardin
  • DSchumacher and Leopold
View solution
Correct Option: A
Paul Ehrlich and John Holdren, 1971.
Q 11 Hardin Medium

"Tragedy of the Commons" — overuse of shared resources — was articulated in 1968 by:

  • AGarrett Hardin
  • BElinor Ostrom
  • CAldo Leopold
  • DPaul Crutzen
View solution
Correct Option: A
Garrett Hardin, 1968 Science article. Ostrom (1990) gave the counter-thesis — commons can be governed.
Q 12 Ostrom Hard

The first woman to win the Economics Nobel (2009), for her work on commons governance, is:

  • AElinor Ostrom
  • BEsther Duflo
  • CWangari Maathai
  • DGreta Thunberg
View solution
Correct Option: A
Elinor Ostrom, *Governing the Commons*, 1990. Nobel Economics 2009.
Q 13 CSE Medium

The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi, was founded by:

  • AVandana Shiva
  • BAnil Agarwal
  • CM.S. Swaminathan
  • DSalim Ali
View solution
Correct Option: B
Anil Agarwal; Sunita Narain is now Director and Down to Earth editor.
Q 14 Project Tiger Medium

Project Tiger was launched by India in:

  • A1972
  • B1973
  • C1980
  • D1992
View solution
Correct Option: B
1973 by PM Indira Gandhi. Currently 55+ tiger reserves.
Q 15 Vandana Shiva Hard

Navdanya (1991), a seed-sovereignty and biodiversity organisation, was founded by:

  • AVandana Shiva
  • BSunita Narain
  • CMadhav Gadgil
  • DMedha Patkar
View solution
Correct Option: A
Vandana Shiva. Ecofeminism + seed sovereignty.
Q 16 Salim Ali Medium

"The Birdman of India" was:

  • ASalim Ali
  • BM.S. Swaminathan
  • CSundarlal Bahuguna
  • DMadhav Gadgil
View solution
Correct Option: A
Salim Ali, Indian ornithologist; *Book of Indian Birds*.
Q 17 Lovelock Hard

The Gaia Hypothesis — Earth as a self-regulating organism — was proposed in 1972 by:

  • AJames Lovelock
  • BGarrett Hardin
  • CDonella Meadows
  • DAldo Leopold
View solution
Correct Option: A
James Lovelock (with Lynn Margulis).
Q 18 MEA Hard

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005, classifies ecosystem services into how many categories?

  • A3
  • B4
  • C5
  • D7
View solution
Correct Option: B
Four: Provisioning · Regulating · Cultural · Supporting.
Q 19 Cheetah Medium

India's cheetah reintroduction programme (2022) is based in:

  • AKaziranga, Assam
  • BRanthambore, Rajasthan
  • CKuno NP, Madhya Pradesh
  • DSundarbans, West Bengal
View solution
Correct Option: C
Kuno National Park, MP. Cheetahs from Namibia + South Africa.
Q 20 Match Hard

Match each movement with its leader:

(i) Chipko (a) Pandurang Hegde
(ii) Narmada Bachao (b) Sundarlal Bahuguna
(iii) Appiko (c) Vandana Shiva
(iv) Navdanya (d) Medha Patkar
  • A(i)-b, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-c
  • B(i)-a, (ii)-b, (iii)-c, (iv)-d
  • C(i)-c, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-b
  • D(i)-d, (ii)-c, (iii)-b, (iv)-a
View solution
Correct Option: A
Chipko → Bahuguna; Narmada → Patkar; Appiko → Hegde; Navdanya → Vandana Shiva.

39.14 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Ecology — Ernst Haeckel 1866. Ecosystem — Arthur Tansley 1935. 10% rule — Lindeman 1942.
  • Biotic (living) vs Abiotic (non-living). Habitat vs Niche. Producer-Consumer-Decomposer.
  • Food chain linear; food web branching. Biomagnification (across chain) vs bioaccumulation (within organism).
  • 3 ecological pyramids: numbers, biomass, energy (energy always upright).
  • Anthropocene — Paul Crutzen + Stoermer, 2000. Rejected as formal geological epoch (2024) but used conceptually.
  • IPAT (Ehrlich-Holdren 1971): Impact = Population × Affluence × Technology.
  • Kaya identity: CO₂ = Pop × GDP/cap × Energy/GDP × CO₂/Energy.
  • 11 major anthropogenic activities: Deforestation · Industrialisation · Urbanisation · Agriculture · Fossil-fuel burning · Mining · Overfishing · Damming · Plastics · Invasives · Light/Noise/Thermal pollution.
  • Population: Malthus 1798 · Demographic transition · India most populous (2023, ~1.42 bn) · India family planning 1952 (first).
  • Indian environmental movements:
    • Bishnoi (1730): Khejarli, Rajasthan; Amrita Devi; 363 lives.
    • Chipko (1973): Uttarakhand; Bahuguna, Bhatt, Gaura Devi.
    • Silent Valley (1973-85): Kerala; KSSP.
    • Jungle Bachao (1980s): Singhbhum.
    • Appiko (1983): Karnataka; Pandurang Hegde.
    • Narmada Bachao (1985): Medha Patkar + Baba Amte + Arundhati Roy.
    • Tehri Dam: Bahuguna.
    • Navdanya (1991): Vandana Shiva.
    • POSCO, Niyamgiri, Aarey.
  • Indian thinkers: Bahuguna · Bhatt · Patkar · Baba Amte · Vandana Shiva · Anil Agarwal (CSE) · Sunita Narain · M.S. Swaminathan · Salim Ali · Madhav Gadgil.
  • Global books/thinkers: Carson 1962 Silent Spring (DDT) · Ehrlich 1968 Population Bomb · Hardin 1968 Tragedy of the Commons · Meadows 1972 Limits to Growth · Leopold 1949 Land Ethic · Lovelock 1972 Gaia Hypothesis · Schumacher 1973 Small is Beautiful · Ostrom 1990 commons (Nobel 2009) · Crutzen 2000 Anthropocene · Wangari Maathai Green Belt (Nobel Peace 2004) · Greta Thunberg.
  • MEA 2005 — 4 ecosystem services: Provisioning · Regulating · Cultural · Supporting.
  • Biogeochemical cycles: C · N (Haber-Bosch 1908) · P (no atmospheric phase) · Water · O · S.
  • Conservation: In-situ (national parks 106+, sanctuaries 565+, biosphere reserves 18, tiger reserves 55+, Ramsar 89+) vs Ex-situ (botanical gardens, zoos, NBPGR seed bank, cryopreservation).
  • Indian conservation programmes: Project Tiger 1973 (Indira Gandhi) · Project Crocodile 1975 · Project Elephant 1992 · Vulture conservation 2006 (Diclofenac ban) · Project Dolphin 2020 · Snow Leopard 2009 · Cheetah reintroduction Kuno NP MP 2022 · CAMPA 2016.