43 Environmental Acts and International Agreements
Environmental governance operates at two levels — national legislation that binds within a country, and international agreements that coordinate across countries. NTA Paper-I tests recognition of major Indian Acts and global treaties.
43.1 Indian Constitutional Provisions
TipEnvironmental Provisions in the Indian Constitution
- Article 48A (Directive Principle, added by 42nd Amendment, 1976) — “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.”
- Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty) — every citizen’s duty “to protect and improve the natural environment”.
- Article 21 (Right to Life) — judicially extended to include the right to a clean environment (M.C. Mehta cases).
43.2 Major Indian Environmental Acts
TipIndian Environmental Legislation
| Act / Year | What it covers |
|---|---|
| Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 | Protects wild animals, birds, plants; sanctuaries, national parks, Tiger Reserves |
| Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 | Establishes Central and State Pollution Control Boards |
| Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 | Restricts diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes |
| Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 | Air-quality standards and enforcement |
| Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 | Umbrella legislation enabling rules on EIA, hazardous waste, noise; passed after Bhopal Tragedy |
| Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 | Compulsory insurance for hazardous industries |
| National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 (replaced 2010) | Forerunner of NGT |
| Biological Diversity Act, 2002 | Implements CBD; National Biodiversity Authority |
| Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 | Forest Rights of tribes |
| National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 | NGT — environmental dispute tribunal |
| Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2006 (revised) | Mandates EIA for specified projects |
| Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended) | Including 2022 single-use plastic ban |
| E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 | Producer responsibility for electronics |
| Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023 | Updates 1980 Act |
43.3 Indian Environmental Bodies
TipMajor Indian Environmental Bodies
| Body | Function |
|---|---|
| MoEFCC | Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change |
| CPCB | Central Pollution Control Board (under Water Act 1974) |
| SPCB | State Pollution Control Boards |
| NGT | National Green Tribunal (since 2010) |
| NBA | National Biodiversity Authority |
| WII | Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun |
| FSI | Forest Survey of India, Dehradun |
| NTCA | National Tiger Conservation Authority |
| ICFRE | Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education |
| CITES Authority (in India) | Customs and Wildlife Crime Control Bureau |
| CDRI | Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure |
43.4 International Environmental Agreements
TipMajor International Agreements
| Year | Agreement | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| 1971 | Ramsar Convention | Wetlands of international importance |
| 1972 | Stockholm Declaration | First international environment conference; led to UNEP |
| 1973 | CITES | Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species |
| 1979 | Bonn Convention (CMS) | Migratory Species |
| 1982 | UNCLOS | UN Convention on the Law of the Sea |
| 1985 | Vienna Convention | Protection of the ozone layer |
| 1987 | Montreal Protocol | Phase-out of ozone-depleting substances |
| 1989 | Basel Convention | Trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste |
| 1992 | UNFCCC | Climate change framework |
| 1992 | Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) | Biodiversity conservation, sustainable use, equitable benefit sharing |
| 1994 | UNCCD | Combat desertification |
| 1997 | Kyoto Protocol | Binding emission targets for developed countries |
| 2000 | Cartagena Protocol | Living modified organisms (under CBD) |
| 2001 | Stockholm Convention | Persistent Organic Pollutants (“dirty dozen”) |
| 2010 | Nagoya Protocol | Access and Benefit Sharing (under CBD) |
| 2013 | Minamata Convention | Mercury |
| 2015 | Paris Agreement | Climate change; “well below 2 °C” |
| 2015 | Sendai Framework | Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) |
| 2015 | Sustainable Development Goals | 17 goals, 169 targets |
| 2022 | Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework | “30 by 30” — protect 30 % of land and sea by 2030 |
43.5 Major Conventions in Detail
TipRamsar Convention (1971)
Adopted in Ramsar, Iran. Treaty for conservation and wise use of wetlands. India joined in 1982; has 80+ Ramsar sites (e.g., Chilika Lake, Keoladeo, Loktak, Sundarbans).
TipCITES (1973)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Lists species in three Appendices:
- Appendix I — most endangered; trade prohibited (tiger, elephant, rhino).
- Appendix II — not necessarily threatened, but trade controlled.
- Appendix III — protected in at least one country.
TipMontreal Protocol (1987)
Designed to phase out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs, halons, HCFCs). Considered the most successful international environmental agreement. The Kigali Amendment (2016) added phase-down of HFCs.
TipConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992)
Three goals:
- Conservation of biological diversity.
- Sustainable use of its components.
- Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
Two protocols: - Cartagena Protocol (2000) — biosafety, living modified organisms. - Nagoya Protocol (2010) — Access and Benefit Sharing.
Implementing legislation in India: Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
TipUNFCCC (1992) and Paris Agreement (2015)
UNFCCC is the parent treaty signed at Rio 1992; entered into force 1994.
Kyoto Protocol (1997, in force 2005) — first binding emissions targets for developed (Annex-I) countries.
Paris Agreement (2015) — adopted at COP21; “well below 2 °C”, aspiring to 1.5 °C; all countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
43.6 India’s Recent Climate-Linked Initiatives
TipRecent Indian Climate Commitments
-
Panchamrit (COP26, 2021) — five climate commitments by India:
- Increase non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030.
- Meet 50 % of energy requirements through non-fossil sources by 2030.
- Reduce projected total carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030.
- Reduce carbon intensity of GDP by 45 % over 2005 levels by 2030.
- Achieve net zero by 2070.
- Mission LiFE (2022) — Lifestyle for Environment.
- National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023).
- CDRI — Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure.
- ISA — International Solar Alliance.
43.7 Practice Questions
Q 01
EPA 1986
Easy
The Environment (Protection) Act of India was enacted in:
View solution
Correct Option: C
The Environment (Protection) Act was passed in 1986 after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. It is India's umbrella environmental legislation.
Q 02
NGT
Easy
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established in:
View solution
Correct Option: C
The NGT was established by the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 — for fast-track environmental dispute resolution.
Q 03
Montreal Protocol
Medium
The Montreal Protocol (1987) was designed to phase out:
View solution
Correct Option: A
The Montreal Protocol targets ozone-depleting substances. Often called the most successful environmental treaty.
Q 04
Ramsar
Easy
The Ramsar Convention (1971) is concerned with:
View solution
Correct Option: A
The Ramsar Convention (signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971) protects wetlands of international importance. India has 80+ Ramsar sites.
Q 05
CITES
Medium
In CITES, species listed in **Appendix I** are:
View solution
Correct Option: A
CITES Appendix I = species threatened with extinction; trade prohibited (tiger, elephant, rhino). Appendix II = trade controlled.
Q 06
CBD
Medium
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992, has three main objectives. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
View solution
Correct Option: C
The CBD's three objectives: Conservation, Sustainable use, Equitable benefit sharing. "Free and open trade" is not an objective; the convention regulates access.
Q 07
Constitutional
Hard
Which Article of the Indian Constitution makes protection of the environment a Directive Principle of State Policy?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Article 48A (Directive Principle, added 42nd Amendment 1976) — State to protect environment. Article 51A(g) is the Fundamental Duty for citizens. Article 21 has been judicially extended.
Q 08
Stockholm POPs
Medium
The Stockholm Convention (2001) regulates which group of pollutants?
View solution
Correct Option: C
The Stockholm Convention 2001 regulates Persistent Organic Pollutants — the "dirty dozen" including DDT, PCBs, dioxins. (Note: the *Minamata Convention* 2013 covers mercury.)
ImportantQuick recall
- Indian Acts: Wildlife (Protection) 1972 · Water 1974 · Forest Conservation 1980 · Air 1981 · EPA 1986 · Biological Diversity 2002 · NGT 2010 · Plastic Rules 2016/2022 · E-Waste Rules 2022.
- Constitution: Article 48A (DPSP, 42nd Amendment), Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty), Article 21 (judicially extended).
- Bodies: MoEFCC, CPCB, NGT, NBA, WII, FSI, NTCA.
- International (chronological): Ramsar 1971, Stockholm 1972, CITES 1973, Vienna 1985, Montreal 1987, Basel 1989, UNFCCC 1992, CBD 1992, UNCCD 1994, Kyoto 1997, Cartagena 2000, Stockholm POPs 2001, Nagoya 2010, Minamata 2013, Paris 2015, Sendai 2015, SDGs 2015, Kunming-Montreal 2022.
- CBD’s 3 goals: conservation, sustainable use, equitable benefit sharing.
- CITES Appendices: I (prohibited), II (regulated), III (national protection).
- India’s Panchamrit at COP26: 500 GW non-fossil; 50 % share; 1 Bt CO₂ reduction; 45 % intensity cut; net zero 2070.