44  Environmental Protection Act (1986), National Action Plan on Climate Change, International agreements/efforts - Montreal Protocol, Rio Summit, Convention on Biodiversity, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, International Solar Alliance

44.1 What the Syllabus Covers

Environmental governance operates at two levels — national legislation that binds within a country, and international agreements that coordinate across countries.

The syllabus names: EP Act 1986 · NAPCC · Montreal Protocol · Rio Summit · CBD · Kyoto Protocol · Paris Agreement · International Solar Alliance.

PYQs: (a) match Indian Act with year, (b) identify which NAPCC mission addresses solar/water/agriculture, (c) match international agreement with its purpose (Montreal=ozone, Kyoto=GHG, Paris=1.5°C, CBD=biodiversity), (d) identify CITES, Ramsar, Basel, Stockholm, Rotterdam conventions.

44.2 Indian Constitutional Provisions

TipEnvironmental Provisions in the Indian Constitution
  • Article 48A (Directive Principle, added by 42nd Amendment, 1976) — “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.”
  • Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty) — every citizen’s duty “to protect and improve the natural environment”.
  • Article 21 (Right to Life) — judicially extended to include the right to a clean environment (M.C. Mehta cases).
  • Article 47 — duty of state to improve public health.
  • Article 253 — Parliament’s power to legislate to implement international treaties (basis for EP Act 1986 — following Stockholm 1972).

44.2.1 Landmark Indian Environmental Litigation

TipFamous PIL Cases (M.C. Mehta, Subhash Kumar, others)
  • M.C. Mehta v UoI (Ganga pollution, Taj Trapezium, vehicular pollution Delhi).
  • Vellore Citizens v UoI (1996) — adopted “Polluter Pays” and Precautionary Principle in Indian law.
  • Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar (1991) — clean water as part of right to life.
  • Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action (Bichhri case).
  • Godavarman case (TN, 1996) — ongoing PIL on forests.

44.3 Indian Environmental Laws — Chronologically

TipIndian Environmental Laws
Year Law
1860 Indian Penal Code §268 (public nuisance)
1927 Indian Forest Act
1948 Factories Act (workplace safety)
1960 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
1972 Wildlife (Protection) Act
1974 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act — created CPCB & SPCBs
1976 42nd Constitutional Amendment (Art 48A, 51A(g))
1977 Water Cess Act
1980 Forest (Conservation) Act (updated 2023)
1981 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1986 Environment (Protection) Act (umbrella law)
1988 National Forest Policy (33% target)
1991 Public Liability Insurance Act
1991 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification
1994 EIA Notification (revised 2006, draft 2020)
2000 Noise Pollution Rules
2002 Biological Diversity Act
2003 National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) constituted
2006 Forest Rights Act (FRA) — Adivasi rights
2008 NAPCC — National Action Plan on Climate Change
2010 National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act
2013 Land Acquisition Act (LARR)
2016 Solid Waste, Plastic Waste, Biomedical, Hazardous, E-Waste, Construction & Demolition Rules
2016 CAMPA — Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act
2019 NCAP — National Clean Air Programme
2022 E-Waste Management Rules (revised) · Plastic SUP ban (1 July)
2023 Forest Conservation Amendment Act · DPDP Act · Telecom Act

44.4 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 — In Depth

The EP Act is the umbrella environmental law of India.

TipEP Act 1986 — Key Features
  • Passed after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (2-3 Dec 1984).
  • Implements the Stockholm Declaration 1972 under Article 253.
  • Empowers Central Government to:
    • Coordinate action among states.
    • Set environmental standards (effluent, emission).
    • Restrict industries in ecologically sensitive areas.
    • Lay down procedures for safeguarding hazardous substances.
    • Direct closure / prohibition of polluting operations.
  • Penalty: imprisonment up to 5 years and/or fine up to ₹1 lakh; daily fines for continuing offence.
  • Hazardous Waste Rules, Bio-Medical Waste Rules, E-Waste Rules, SUP/Plastic Rules all flow from EP Act 1986.
  • EIA Notification 1994/2006 issued under EP Act.
  • CRZ Notification 1991/2011/2019 issued under EP Act.

44.5 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC, 2008)

TipNAPCC 2008 — Eight National Missions
  1. National Solar Mission (JNNSM, target revised to 100 GW).
  2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) — PAT scheme (Perform, Achieve and Trade).
  3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat — cities, transport.
  4. National Water Mission — 20% efficiency increase.
  5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem.
  6. National Mission for a Green India — afforestation; 10 M ha target.
  7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
  8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.

Two additional missions added later: National Wind Energy Mission, National Mission on Bio-energy.

TipNAPCC Companion Frameworks
  • State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC).
  • National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC, 2015).
  • NDC (Nationally Determined Contributions) — submitted 2015, updated 2022.
  • LiFE — Lifestyle for Environment (2021).
  • Net Zero by 2070 (Glasgow COP26).
  • Panchamrit pledge (COP26 2021).

44.6 International Environmental Agreements — Chronologically

TipMajor International Environmental Agreements
Year Agreement Subject India
1971 Ramsar Convention Wetlands Joined 1982; 89+ Ramsar sites
1972 Stockholm Conference / UNEP First UN environment summit Indira Gandhi addressed
1973 CITES Trade in endangered species Joined 1976
1979 Bonn Convention (CMS) Migratory species Joined 1983
1985 Vienna Convention Ozone Joined 1991
1987 Montreal Protocol Ozone-depleting substances (CFCs, HCFCs) Joined 1992; ratified Kigali 2021
1989 Basel Convention Trans-boundary hazardous waste Joined 1992
1992 Rio Earth Summit (UNCED) Agenda 21; UNFCCC; CBD; Forest Principles Full participant
1992 UNFCCC Climate change framework Ratified 1993
1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Biodiversity Ratified 1994
1997 Kyoto Protocol Binding GHG cuts (Annex I) Joined 2002 (non-Annex I)
1998 Rotterdam Convention Chemical PIC (Prior Informed Consent) Joined 2005
2000 Cartagena Protocol (on CBD) Living modified organisms Joined 2003
2001 Stockholm Convention Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Joined 2006
2002 Johannesburg / Rio+10. Implementation —
2010 Nagoya Protocol (on CBD) Genetic-resource access & benefit-sharing Joined 2014
2012 Rio+20 “The Future We Want” —
2013 Minamata Convention Mercury Joined 2018
2015 Paris Agreement (COP21) 1.5-2°C climate target Ratified 2016
2015 SDGs (2030 Agenda) 17 goals India SDG India Index (NITI Aayog)
2015 International Solar Alliance (ISA) Solar power Co-founded by India + France, HQ Gurugram
2016 Kigali Amendment (Montreal Protocol) HFC phase-down Joined 2021
2019 CDRI Disaster-resilient infrastructure Launched by India
2021 Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26) Coal phase-down India Net Zero 2070
2022 COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh Loss & Damage Fund India in High Ambition Coalition
2023 COP28 Dubai Transitioning away from fossil fuels Loss & Damage operationalised

44.7 Stockholm Conference 1972

TipStockholm 1972
  • United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
  • First major UN environment summit.
  • “Only One Earth” theme.
  • Stockholm Declaration: 26 principles including state responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause damage elsewhere (Principle 21).
  • UNEP founded (Nairobi HQ).
  • 5 June = World Environment Day.
  • Indira Gandhi addressed the conference — famous “Poverty is the worst polluter” speech.

44.8 Montreal Protocol 1987

TipMontreal Protocol
  • Under Vienna Convention 1985.
  • Phases out ozone-depleting substances (ODS) — CFCs, HCFCs, halons, methyl bromide.
  • Universally ratified — by all UN member states.
  • Most successful environmental treaty ever.
  • Kigali Amendment 2016 — phases down HFCs (potent greenhouse gases used as CFC replacements).
  • India ratified Kigali Amendment in 2021.
  • Ozone hole over Antarctica is recovering; expected full recovery by ~2066.

44.9 Rio Earth Summit 1992

TipRio Earth Summit / UNCED 1992
  • United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, June 1992.
  • Five outputs:
    1. Rio Declaration (27 principles incl. CBDR, Polluter Pays, Precautionary Principle).
    2. Agenda 21 — comprehensive action plan.
    3. UNFCCC — Framework Convention on Climate Change.
    4. CBD — Convention on Biological Diversity.
    5. Forest Principles (non-binding).

44.10 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992

TipCBD — Three Objectives
  1. Conservation of biological diversity.
  2. Sustainable use of its components.
  3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources.
TipCBD Family
  • Cartagena Protocol 2000 — biosafety / living modified organisms (LMOs).
  • Nagoya Protocol 2010 — access to genetic resources + benefit sharing (ABS).
  • Aichi Biodiversity Targets 2010-2020 — 20 targets (largely missed).
  • Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, COP15 2022 — replaces Aichi; 30×30 target (30% of land and sea protected by 2030).
  • India’s Biological Diversity Act 2002 + National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), Chennai.
  • CITES governs trade in endangered species (1973, joined 1976).
  • Ramsar Convention 1971 — wetlands; India has 89+ Ramsar sites (Chilika, Loktak, Keoladeo, Sundarbans etc.).

44.11 UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement

44.11.1 UNFCCC 1992

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. India ratified 1993. Hosts the annual COP (Conference of Parties).

44.11.2 Kyoto Protocol 1997

TipKyoto Protocol
  • Adopted at COP3, Kyoto, 1997; in force 2005.
  • Binding emission targets for Annex I (developed) countries for 2008-2012 (1st commitment period) and 2013-2020 (2nd, Doha Amendment).
  • 3 flexible mechanisms:
    • CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) — projects in developing countries earn CERs.
    • JI (Joint Implementation).
    • Emissions Trading.
  • USA never ratified; Canada withdrew 2011.
  • Superseded in practice by Paris Agreement.

44.11.3 Paris Agreement 2015

TipParis Agreement
  • Adopted at COP21, Paris, 12 December 2015.
  • In force 4 November 2016.
  • Universal — applies to all countries (not just Annex I).
  • Goals: “well below 2°C” with effort to limit to 1.5°C.
  • Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) — bottom-up pledges.
  • Global Stocktake every 5 years.
  • $100 billion/year climate finance pledge by developed countries.
  • Article 6 — international carbon markets.

44.12 International Solar Alliance (ISA)

TipISA
  • Co-founded by India and France at COP21 Paris, 30 November 2015.
  • Headquarters: Gurugram, India.
  • In force from 2017.
  • Aim: deployment of solar energy in sun-rich countries (tropics) between Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn.
  • Membership opened to all UN member states (2018 amendment).
  • Goal: mobilise USD 1 trillion in solar investment.
  • One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) initiative.
  • Headed by Director-General Ajay Mathur (former Director-General BEE).

44.13 CDRI — Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

TipCDRI 2019
  • Launched by India at UN Climate Action Summit, September 2019.
  • HQ New Delhi.
  • Member countries + international organisations.
  • Promotes resilience of new and existing infrastructure to climate and disaster risks.

44.14 Other Indian and Global Programmes

TipOther Notable Initiatives
  • Bonn Challenge — restore 350 million ha of degraded forest by 2030. India pledged 26 million ha.
  • UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030.
  • Plan Bee / Bee Friendly Initiatives (UN).
  • Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests (2021) — halt deforestation by 2030.
  • Global Methane Pledge 2021 — 30% cut by 2030 (India not signatory).
  • Just Energy Transition Partnerships (JETP).
  • G20 Bali / Delhi declarations on climate.
  • G20 New Delhi 2023 — Global Biofuel Alliance (India-led).
  • Mission LiFE — Lifestyle for Environment (2021).

44.15 Theory Anchors

TipPersons and Concepts
Person / Body Note
Indira Gandhi “Poverty is the worst polluter” — Stockholm 1972
M.C. Mehta Environmental PIL pioneer in India
Rajiv Gandhi government EP Act 1986 after Bhopal
Brundtland 1987 SD definition
UNEP, IPCC, WMO Climate science bodies
Ajay Mathur Director-General ISA
Maurice Strong Stockholm and Rio Secretary-General
Christiana Figueres UNFCCC Executive Secretary during Paris
Antonio Guterres UN Secretary-General; “code red for humanity” 2021

44.16 Practice Questions

Q 01 EP Act Easy

India's umbrella Environment Protection Act was enacted in:

  • A1972
  • B1981
  • C1986
  • D2010
View solution
Correct Option: C
EP Act 1986, following Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984.
Q 02 NAPCC Medium

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in:

  • A2005
  • B2008
  • C2015
  • D2021
View solution
Correct Option: B
NAPCC 2008; 8 missions.
Q 03 NAPCC Missions Hard

NAPCC originally consisted of how many National Missions?

  • A5
  • B8
  • C10
  • D17
View solution
Correct Option: B
8: Solar · Energy Efficiency · Sustainable Habitat · Water · Himalayan · Green India · Sustainable Agriculture · Strategic Knowledge.
Q 04 Montreal Easy

The Montreal Protocol (1987) phases out:

  • AGreenhouse gases
  • BOzone-depleting substances
  • CPlastics
  • DMercury
View solution
Correct Option: B
Montreal Protocol → ODS (CFCs, HCFCs, halons, methyl bromide). Kigali Amendment 2016 adds HFCs.
Q 05 Rio Medium

The Rio Earth Summit 1992 did NOT produce:

  • AAgenda 21
  • BUNFCCC
  • CCBD
  • DParis Agreement
View solution
Correct Option: D
Paris Agreement 2015. Rio 1992 gave Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD, Forest Principles, Rio Declaration.
Q 06 CBD Medium

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has how many objectives?

  • ATwo
  • BThree
  • CFour
  • DFive
View solution
Correct Option: B
3 objectives: Conservation · Sustainable use · Fair benefit-sharing.
Q 07 Kyoto Medium

The Kyoto Protocol (1997) bound which countries to GHG cuts?

  • AAll UN members
  • BAnnex I (developed) countries
  • CDeveloping countries
  • DOnly USA and EU
View solution
Correct Option: B
Kyoto bound Annex I (developed) countries.
Q 08 Paris Easy

The Paris Agreement aims to limit global warming to "well below" which level?

  • A1°C
  • B2°C, with 1.5°C ambition
  • C3°C
  • D5°C
View solution
Correct Option: B
"well below 2°C" with effort to limit to 1.5°C.
Q 09 ISA Medium

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) was launched at:

  • ACOP3 Kyoto 1997
  • BCOP21 Paris 2015
  • CCOP26 Glasgow 2021
  • DG20 New Delhi 2023
View solution
Correct Option: B
ISA launched at COP21 Paris 2015 by India + France.
Q 10 ISA HQ Easy

The ISA's permanent headquarters are in:

  • ANew Delhi
  • BGurugram
  • CParis
  • DGeneva
View solution
Correct Option: B
Gurugram, Haryana.
Q 11 Stockholm 1972 Medium

"Poverty is the worst polluter" was said at the 1972 Stockholm Conference by:

  • AIndira Gandhi
  • BMaurice Strong
  • COlof Palme
  • DGro Brundtland
View solution
Correct Option: A
Indira Gandhi, the only head of state besides Sweden's PM to address the conference.
Q 12 CITES Hard

CITES (1973) governs:

  • AHazardous waste movement
  • BInternational trade in endangered species
  • CPlastic waste trade
  • DMarine fisheries
View solution
Correct Option: B
CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. India joined 1976.
Q 13 Ramsar Medium

The Ramsar Convention (1971) protects:

  • AMigratory species
  • BWetlands
  • CForests
  • DEndangered species
View solution
Correct Option: B
Ramsar = wetlands. India has 89+ Ramsar sites.
Q 14 NGT Medium

India's National Green Tribunal was established in:

  • A1986
  • B2002
  • C2010
  • D2015
View solution
Correct Option: C
NGT Act 2010; Principal Bench New Delhi.
Q 15 CBD India Medium

India's Biological Diversity Act was enacted in:

  • A1996
  • B2002
  • C2010
  • D2016
View solution
Correct Option: B
Biological Diversity Act 2002; NBA Chennai constituted 2003.
Q 16 Kigali Hard

The Kigali Amendment (2016) to the Montreal Protocol phases down:

  • ACFCs
  • BHCFCs
  • CHFCs
  • DMethyl bromide
View solution
Correct Option: C
HFCs — potent GHGs used as CFC replacements. India ratified 2021.
Q 17 Nagoya Hard

The Nagoya Protocol (2010) under CBD covers:

  • AGHG emissions
  • BAccess to genetic resources and benefit sharing
  • CTrade in endangered species
  • DTrans-boundary waste
View solution
Correct Option: B
Nagoya Protocol = ABS (access and benefit sharing) for genetic resources.
Q 18 Article Hard

In the Indian Constitution, environmental protection as a Directive Principle is under:

  • AArticle 21
  • BArticle 48A
  • CArticle 51A(g)
  • DArticle 253
View solution
Correct Option: B
Article 48A — Directive Principle (42nd Amendment 1976). 51A(g) = Fundamental Duty.
Q 19 30x30 Hard

The "30×30" target — protecting 30% of land and sea by 2030 — is part of the:

  • AParis Agreement
  • BKunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD COP15 2022)
  • CSendai Framework
  • DBonn Challenge
View solution
Correct Option: B
Kunming-Montreal Framework, CBD COP15 2022 — replaces Aichi Targets.
Q 20 Match Hard

Match each agreement with its subject:

(i) Montreal Protocol (a) Biodiversity
(ii) Kyoto Protocol (b) Wetlands
(iii) CBD (c) Ozone
(iv) Ramsar (d) GHG emissions
  • A(i)-c, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-b
  • B(i)-a, (ii)-b, (iii)-c, (iv)-d
  • C(i)-d, (ii)-a, (iii)-b, (iv)-c
  • D(i)-b, (ii)-c, (iii)-d, (iv)-a
View solution
Correct Option: A
Montreal → Ozone; Kyoto → GHG; CBD → Biodiversity; Ramsar → Wetlands.

44.17 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Constitutional provisions: Article 48A (DPSP, 42nd Amendment 1976) · Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty) · Article 21 (clean environment via PIL) · Article 253 (basis for EP Act 1986).
  • Landmark PILs: M.C. Mehta (Ganga, Taj, vehicular); Vellore Citizens 1996 (Polluter Pays + Precautionary); Subhash Kumar 1991 (water as part of life); Godavarman 1996.
  • Indian Acts chronology: Indian Forest 1927 · Wildlife 1972 · Water Act 1974 (CPCB) · 42nd Amendment 1976 · Forest Conservation 1980 (rev 2023) · Air Act 1981 · EP Act 1986 · NFP 1988 · CRZ 1991 · EIA 1994/2006 · Noise Rules 2000 · Biological Diversity Act 2002 · FRA 2006 · NAPCC 2008 · NGT Act 2010 · 2016 Rules (Waste/Plastic/Biomedical/Hazardous/E-Waste) · CAMPA 2016 · NCAP 2019 · SUP ban 2022 · DPDP Act 2023.
  • EP Act 1986 — post-Bhopal · umbrella · under Article 253 (Stockholm 1972) · Central Govt powers · 5 yr / ₹1 lakh penalty · EIA/CRZ/Waste Rules flow from it.
  • NAPCC 2008 — 8 Missions: Solar · Energy Efficiency (PAT) · Sustainable Habitat · Water · Himalayan · Green India (10 M ha) · Sustainable Agriculture · Strategic Knowledge.
  • NAPCC family: SAPCC · NAFCC 2015 · NDC 2015/2022 · LiFE 2021 · Net Zero 2070 · Panchamrit.
  • International agreements chronology: Ramsar 1971 (wetlands) · Stockholm 1972 (UNEP) · CITES 1973 (trade) · Bonn/CMS 1979 (migratory) · Vienna 1985 (ozone) · Montreal 1987 (ODS) · Basel 1989 (waste) · Rio 1992 (Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD, Forest Principles) · Kyoto 1997 (GHG) · Rotterdam 1998 (chemicals) · Cartagena 2000 (LMOs) · Stockholm 2001 (POPs) · Nagoya 2010 (ABS) · Minamata 2013 (Hg) · Paris 2015 · ISA 2015 · SDGs 2015 · Kigali 2016 (HFCs) · CDRI 2019 · Glasgow 2021 · COP27 2022 (Loss & Damage) · Kunming-Montreal 2022 (30×30) · COP28 2023.
  • Stockholm 1972 — first UN env summit · UNEP · “Only One Earth” · World Environment Day 5 June · “Poverty is the worst polluter” (Indira Gandhi).
  • Montreal 1987 — phases out CFCs/HCFCs. Universal ratification. Kigali 2016 adds HFCs (India 2021).
  • Rio 1992 outputs (5): Rio Declaration (27 principles incl. CBDR/Polluter Pays/Precautionary) · Agenda 21 · UNFCCC · CBD · Forest Principles.
  • CBD 3 objectives: Conservation · Sustainable use · Fair benefit-sharing. Family: Cartagena 2000 · Nagoya 2010 · Aichi 2010-20 · Kunming-Montreal 30×30 2022.
  • Kyoto 1997 (in force 2005): Annex I cuts. 3 mechanisms: CDM · JI · Emissions Trading. USA never ratified.
  • Paris 2015 (in force 2016): universal · 1.5-2°C · NDCs · Global Stocktake (5-yr) · $100 bn finance · Article 6.
  • ISA 2015 — India + France · HQ Gurugram · in force 2017 · solar in tropics · USD 1 trn investment · DG Ajay Mathur · OSOWOG.
  • CDRI 2019 — India-led · HQ New Delhi.
  • Other: Bonn Challenge (350 M ha by 2030, India 26 M ha pledge) · UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030 · Glasgow Forests Declaration 2021 · Global Methane Pledge 2021 · Global Biofuel Alliance (G20 Delhi 2023) · Mission LiFE 2021.