42 Natural and energy resources: Solar, Wind, Soil, Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear and Forests
42.1 What the Syllabus Covers
A natural resource is anything obtained from the environment to support life and economic activity. Resources are classified by their renewability — the rate at which nature replenishes them.
The syllabus names eight resources: Solar, Wind, Soil, Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear, and Forests.
PYQs reliably ask: (a) classify a resource as renewable / non-renewable, (b) identify India’s installed capacity and target for renewables, (c) name types of forests in India (FSI classification), (d) match an Indian soil type to its region, and (e) recognise flagship missions (PM-KUSUM, ISA, INSPIRE, NSM, MNRE, Jawaharlal Nehru Solar Mission).
42.2 Renewable vs Non-Renewable
TipTwo Major Categories
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Renewable | Replenished by natural processes within human time | Solar, Wind, Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Tidal, Wave |
| Non-renewable | Finite stock; replenished only over geological time | Coal, Oil, Natural Gas, Uranium, Minerals |
| Inexhaustible | Practically unlimited at human scales | Solar, Wind |
| Exhaustible (renewable) | Renewable but can be depleted if overused | Forest, Soil, Groundwater |
TipEnergy vs Material Resources
- Energy resources — Solar, Wind, Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear, Fossil fuels.
- Material resources — Soil, Water, Minerals, Forests, Biodiversity.
42.3 Indian Power Sector at a Glance
TipIndia’s Installed Power Capacity (2024)
- Total installed capacity: ~440 GW.
- Coal/thermal: ~50 %.
- Renewables (incl. hydro): ~43-45 %.
- Pure RE (Solar + Wind + Bio + Small Hydro): ~30 %.
- Solar capacity: ~85 GW.
- Wind capacity: ~45 GW.
- Large Hydro: ~47 GW.
- Nuclear: ~7-8 GW.
- Target: 500 GW non-fossil by 2030 (Panchamrit pledge, COP26).
42.4 Solar Energy
TipSolar Energy
- India receives ~4-7 kWh/m²/day of solar insolation.
- Photovoltaic (PV) — direct conversion to electricity.
- Solar Thermal / CSP — concentrating mirrors heat fluid → steam → turbine.
- Solar PV dominates Indian deployment.
TipIndia’s Solar Programmes
- Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM, 2010) — original target 20 GW by 2022; revised to 100 GW.
- Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI, 2011) — implementation agency.
- PM-KUSUM (Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan, 2019) — solar pumps for farmers.
- Rooftop Solar Programme.
- PM Surya Ghar — Muft Bijli Yojana (2024) — rooftop solar for 1 crore households.
- International Solar Alliance (ISA, 2015) — co-founded by India and France; HQ Gurugram.
- One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG).
- Solar Parks — Bhadla (Rajasthan, ~2.2 GW), Pavagada (Karnataka), Kurnool (AP).
42.5 Wind Energy
TipWind Energy in India
- India is 4th largest wind-energy producer globally.
- Major wind belts: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh.
- Muppandal (TN) is one of the largest onshore wind farms.
- Offshore wind target: 30 GW by 2030 (NIWE, NIOT).
- National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy 2018.
- Wind Resource Map by NIWE.
42.6 Hydro Power
TipHydro Power in India
- Large hydro (> 25 MW) — ~47 GW capacity. Reclassified as RE in 2019.
- Small hydro (≤ 25 MW) — under MNRE.
- Major plants: Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab/HP), Tehri (Uttarakhand, world’s 8th tallest dam), Sardar Sarovar (Gujarat), Hirakud (Odisha), Nagarjuna Sagar (AP/Telangana), Nathpa Jhakri (HP), Subansiri Lower (Arunachal under construction).
- Pumped Storage is being expanded for RE balancing.
- Run-of-river systems minimise displacement.
- Concerns: silting, displacement, downstream ecological impact.
42.7 Geothermal Energy
TipGeothermal Resources in India
- Heat from Earth’s interior, harnessed via hot springs or deep drilling.
- India has 340+ thermal springs in 7 provinces: Himalayan, Sohana, West Coast, Cambay, Son-Narmada-Tapi, Godavari, Mahanadi.
- Famous sites: Puga Valley (Ladakh), Chumathang, Manikaran (HP), Tatapani (Chhattisgarh), Tapoban (Uttarakhand).
- Indian geothermal potential modest (~10 GW); minimal deployment.
- Iceland, NZ, Philippines lead globally.
42.8 Biomass and Bioenergy
TipBiomass Energy
- Energy from plant/animal matter.
- Biofuels: Bioethanol (sugarcane → mixed with petrol), Biodiesel (jatropha, palm), Biogas (anaerobic digestion of organic waste).
- Ethanol blending in petrol: India target E20 (20%) by 2025-26 (advanced from 2030).
- Cogeneration with bagasse in sugar industry.
- National Bioenergy Mission, GOBARdhan (2018).
- National Biofuel Policy 2018.
- Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG) — SATAT scheme 2018.
- Sustainability concerns: food vs fuel competition, land-use change.
42.9 Nuclear Energy
TipNuclear Energy in India
- Generates ~7-8 GW (~3 % of electricity).
-
Three-stage programme designed by Homi Bhabha:
- Stage 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR) using natural uranium.
- Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) using plutonium-239 and producing U-233 from thorium.
- Stage 3: Thorium-based reactors using U-233.
- Reactors operational: Tarapur (Maharashtra) · Kakrapar (Gujarat) · Rajasthan (Rawatbhata) · Kaiga (Karnataka) · Madras/Kalpakkam (TN) · Narora (UP) · Kudankulam (TN).
- Bodies: Atomic Energy Commission (AEC, 1948) · Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) · NPCIL · BARC · IGCAR · AERB.
- India is not an NPT signatory; received NSG waiver 2008.
TipNuclear Accidents
- Three Mile Island (USA, 1979).
- Chernobyl (USSR, 26 April 1986).
- Fukushima Daiichi (Japan, 11 March 2011) — earthquake + tsunami.
42.10 Soil Resources
42.10.1 Indian Soil Types
TipMajor Indian Soil Types
| Soil | Region | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Alluvial | Indo-Gangetic, coastal | Most fertile; supports rice, wheat |
| Black (Regur) | Deccan plateau (Maharashtra, Gujarat) | Cotton soil; moisture-retentive |
| Red & Yellow | Eastern/Southern peninsula | Iron-rich; needs irrigation |
| Laterite | Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats | Acidic; tea, cashew |
| Mountain / Forest | Himalayas | Less developed |
| Arid / Desert | Rajasthan, Gujarat | Sandy; low water-holding |
| Saline / Alkaline (Usar) | Punjab, Haryana, UP | Salinisation |
| Peaty / Marshy | Kerala, West Bengal | High organic content |
42.10.2 Soil Degradation and Conservation
TipConservation Measures
- Erosion control: contour ploughing, terracing, mulching.
- Crop rotation, mixed cropping, agroforestry, cover crops.
- Vermicomposting, organic manures.
- Watershed management.
- Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
- Soil Health Card Scheme (2015).
42.11 Forest Resources
42.11.1 India’s Forest Cover (ISFR 2021)
TipIndia State of Forest Report 2021
- Total forest cover: 7.13 lakh sq km = 21.71 % of geographic area.
- Tree cover: ~2.9 %.
- Combined forest + tree cover: ~24.62 %.
- NFP 1988 target: 33 % forest cover.
-
Forest cover categories:
- Very dense forest (canopy density > 70 %).
- Moderately dense (40-70 %).
- Open forest (10-40 %).
- Largest forest cover (area): Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra.
- Largest % cover: Mizoram (84.5%), Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya.
- Forest Survey of India (FSI), Dehradun — biennial ISFR.
42.11.2 Forest Types (Champion & Seth, 1968)
TipForest Types of India
16 major groups, including: - Tropical wet evergreen — Western Ghats, Andamans. - Tropical semi-evergreen — NE India. - Tropical moist deciduous — Sal forests, Himalayan foothills. - Tropical dry deciduous — Central India teak forests. - Tropical thorn — Rajasthan, Gujarat. - Subtropical broadleaved hill — Western Ghats hills. - Subtropical pine — Himalayas. - Temperate / Alpine — high Himalayas. - Littoral & Swamp / Mangrove — Sundarbans, coasts.
42.11.3 Forest Management
TipForest Governance
- Indian Forest Act, 1927.
- Forest Conservation Act, 1980. (Updated 2023.)
- National Forest Policy, 1988.
- Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
- Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
- Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act (CAMPA), 2016.
- Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 — recognises Adivasi forest rights.
- Project Tiger (1973), Project Elephant (1992).
- Joint Forest Management (JFM) — community participation.
- National Mission for a Green India — part of NAPCC.
42.12 Other Renewable Resources
TipTidal, Wave, Hydrogen, Storage
- Tidal energy — limited Indian deployment; potential at Gulf of Kutch and Khambhat.
- Wave energy.
- Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC).
- Green Hydrogen Mission (2023) — produce hydrogen via electrolysis with renewable power.
- Battery / pumped-storage — for RE balancing.
42.13 Bodies and Acronyms
TipIndian Energy and Resource Bodies
| Body | Role |
|---|---|
| MNRE | Ministry of New and Renewable Energy |
| MoP | Ministry of Power |
| MoEFCC | Environment, Forest, Climate Change |
| SECI | Solar Energy Corporation of India |
| NTPC, NHPC, PowerGrid | Public power generation/transmission |
| NIWE | National Institute of Wind Energy, Chennai |
| NISE | National Institute of Solar Energy, Gurugram |
| NIOT | National Institute of Ocean Technology |
| BEE | Bureau of Energy Efficiency |
| CEA | Central Electricity Authority |
| CERC / SERCs | Electricity regulators |
| GRIDCO / SLDCs | Grid management |
| AEC, DAE, NPCIL, BARC, IGCAR, AERB | Nuclear |
| ICAR | Agricultural research / soil |
| FSI, ISFR | Forest survey |
| MoNRE = MNRE | RE ministry |
42.14 Theory Anchors
TipPersons and Programmes
| Person / Programme | Year | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Homi Bhabha | 1948 | AEC; 3-stage nuclear programme |
| Vikram Sarabhai | 1963 | India’s space programme |
| JNNSM | 2010 | Solar mission |
| ISA | 2015 | India + France |
| Panchamrit (COP26) | 2021 | 500 GW non-fossil by 2030; Net Zero 2070 |
| PM-KUSUM | 2019 | Solar for farmers |
| PM Surya Ghar | 2024 | Rooftop solar 1 crore homes |
| Green Hydrogen Mission | 2023 | Electrolysis-based |
| Champion & Seth | 1968 | Indian forest types |
| NFP 1988 | 1988 | 33% forest cover target |
| FRA 2006 | 2006 | Forest rights |
42.15 Practice Questions
Q 01
Renewable
Easy
Which of the following is NOT a renewable energy source?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Coal is non-renewable (fossil fuel).
Q 02
India Target
Medium
India's Panchamrit pledge at COP26 committed to how much non-fossil installed capacity by 2030?
View solution
Correct Option: C
500 GW non-fossil by 2030; also 50% RE share of installed capacity.
Q 03
JNNSM
Medium
The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched in:
View solution
Correct Option: B
JNNSM 2010; revised target to 100 GW solar by 2022.
Q 04
ISA
Medium
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) HQ, Gurugram, was co-founded by India and:
View solution
Correct Option: C
India + France, launched at COP21 Paris 2015.
Q 05
Bhabha
Hard
India's "three-stage nuclear programme" was designed by:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Homi J. Bhabha — AEC chairman; thorium-centric programme.
Q 06
Soil
Medium
The most fertile soil in India is:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Alluvial — Indo-Gangetic plain; rice/wheat belt.
Q 07
Black Soil
Medium
Black (Regur) soil is associated with which crop?
View solution
Correct Option: B
Black soil = cotton soil; Deccan plateau (Maharashtra, Gujarat).
Q 08
Forest Cover
Hard
According to ISFR 2021, India's forest cover is approximately:
View solution
Correct Option: C
21.71 % forest; ~24.6 % forest + tree cover. National Forest Policy 1988 target: 33 %.
Q 09
Forest States
Hard
Which Indian state has the LARGEST forest cover by area?
View solution
Correct Option: A
Madhya Pradesh has largest forest area. Mizoram has highest percentage (~85%).
Q 10
FSI
Medium
The Forest Survey of India (FSI), which publishes ISFR biennially, is headquartered at:
View solution
Correct Option: A
FSI, Dehradun. Biennial India State of Forest Report (ISFR).
Q 11
Forest Types
Hard
Mangrove forests in India are best represented at:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Sundarbans, West Bengal — world's largest mangrove forest. Royal Bengal Tiger habitat.
Q 12
Wind
Medium
One of the largest onshore wind farms in India is at:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Muppandal (TN). Bhadla and Pavagada are solar parks; Tehri is hydro.
Q 13
Solar Park
Hard
One of the world's largest solar parks, Bhadla, is in:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Bhadla Solar Park, Rajasthan (~2.2 GW).
Q 14
PM-KUSUM
Medium
PM-KUSUM, launched 2019, supports:
View solution
Correct Option: B
PM-KUSUM — Kisan Urja Suraksha; solarises agri pumps and barren-land solar plants.
Q 15
Hydro
Medium
The Tehri Dam — among the world's tallest — is in:
View solution
Correct Option: A
Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand on Bhagirathi.
Q 16
Geothermal
Hard
Puga Valley — India's premier geothermal site — is located in:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Puga Valley, Ladakh. Chumathang also in Ladakh.
Q 17
FRA
Medium
The Forest Rights Act (FRA), recognising Adivasi forest rights, was enacted in:
View solution
Correct Option: C
FRA 2006.
Q 18
Biomass
Medium
India's E20 ethanol-blending target (20% ethanol in petrol) was advanced to:
View solution
Correct Option: B
E20 by 2025-26 (advanced from 2030).
Q 19
Green Hydrogen
Hard
India's National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched in:
View solution
Correct Option: C
National Green Hydrogen Mission 2023.
Q 20
Match
Hard
Match each soil with its dominant region:
| (i) | Alluvial | (a) | Western Ghats hills |
| (ii) | Black | (b) | Indo-Gangetic plain |
| (iii) | Laterite | (c) | Rajasthan |
| (iv) | Desert | (d) | Deccan plateau |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Alluvial → Indo-Gangetic; Black → Deccan; Laterite → Western Ghats hills; Desert → Rajasthan.
42.16 Quick Recall
ImportantQuick recall
- Resource categories: Renewable (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass, tidal) vs Non-renewable (coal, oil, gas, uranium, minerals). Inexhaustible vs Exhaustible-renewable.
- India installed capacity (~440 GW): Coal ~50% · Renewables ~43-45% (Solar ~85 GW, Wind ~45 GW, Hydro ~47 GW, Nuclear ~7-8 GW).
- Target: 500 GW non-fossil by 2030; Net Zero 2070 (Panchamrit COP26).
- Solar: JNNSM 2010, SECI 2011, PM-KUSUM 2019 (farmer pumps), PM Surya Ghar 2024 (rooftop), ISA 2015 (India+France, Gurugram), OSOWOG; Bhadla (Rajasthan ~2.2 GW), Pavagada (Karnataka), Kurnool (AP).
- Wind: India 4th largest. Wind belts: TN, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, AP. Muppandal (TN) large onshore farm. Offshore target 30 GW by 2030.
- Hydro: Large > 25 MW (~47 GW, RE since 2019). Tehri (Uttarakhand, world’s 8th tallest), Bhakra-Nangal, Sardar Sarovar, Hirakud, Nagarjuna Sagar, Nathpa Jhakri, Subansiri.
- Geothermal: 340+ springs in 7 provinces; Puga Valley (Ladakh), Chumathang, Manikaran HP, Tatapani Chhattisgarh, Tapoban Uttarakhand.
- Biomass: Bioethanol (cane), Biodiesel (jatropha), Biogas; E20 by 2025-26; GOBARdhan 2018; National Biofuel Policy 2018; SATAT 2018 CBG.
- Nuclear (~7-8 GW): Homi Bhabha’s 3-stage programme — PHWR (Stage 1) → FBR + plutonium + thorium (Stage 2) → U-233/Thorium (Stage 3). Reactors: Tarapur, Kakrapar, Rawatbhata, Kaiga, Kalpakkam, Narora, Kudankulam. Bodies: AEC 1948 · DAE · NPCIL · BARC · IGCAR · AERB. Not NPT signatory; NSG waiver 2008.
- Nuclear accidents: Three Mile Island 1979 · Chernobyl 26 April 1986 · Fukushima 11 March 2011.
- Indian soils (8): Alluvial (Indo-Gangetic, most fertile) · Black/Regur (Deccan, cotton) · Red & Yellow (peninsula) · Laterite (Western/Eastern Ghats, tea/cashew) · Mountain/Forest (Himalayas) · Arid/Desert (Rajasthan) · Saline/Alkaline (Punjab/Haryana/UP) · Peaty/Marshy (Kerala/Bengal). Soil Health Card 2015.
- Forest cover (ISFR 2021, FSI Dehradun, biennial): 21.71% forest; ~24.6% forest+tree. NFP 1988 target: 33%. Densest %: Mizoram (~85%), Arunachal, Meghalaya. Largest area: Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal, Chhattisgarh.
- Forest types (Champion & Seth 1968): 16 groups — Tropical wet/semi/moist deciduous/dry deciduous/thorn · Subtropical broadleaved/pine · Temperate/Alpine · Littoral & Swamp/Mangrove (Sundarbans, world’s largest).
- Forest laws: Indian Forest Act 1927 · Forest Conservation Act 1980 (revised 2023) · NFP 1988 · Wildlife Act 1972 · Biological Diversity Act 2002 · CAMPA 2016 · FRA 2006 · Project Tiger 1973, Elephant 1992 · Green India Mission.
- Other renewables: Tidal (Gulf of Kutch/Khambhat potential), Wave, OTEC, Green Hydrogen, Battery/Pumped Storage.
- Bodies: MNRE · MoP · MoEFCC · SECI · NTPC/NHPC/PowerGrid · NIWE · NISE · NIOT · BEE · CEA · CERC · ICAR · FSI.