10  Thesis and Article Writing

The official syllabus expects the candidate to know the format of a thesis and a research article and the standard styles of referencing.

10.1 Thesis vs Dissertation vs Article

TipThree Forms of Research Writing
Form Submitted for Length Original contribution
Thesis PhD (in India and most Commonwealth) 200–400 pages Substantial original
Dissertation Master’s or MPhil in India; PhD in the United States 80–150 pages (Master’s) Modest original or extensive review
Research article / paper Journal publication 4,000–10,000 words One focused contribution
Conference paper Conference presentation, proceedings 4–8 pages One focused contribution
Review article Journal publication 5,000–15,000 words Synthesis of existing work

The terms thesis and dissertation are used inversely in the United States and in India / United Kingdom — a frequent NTA distractor.

10.2 Standard Format of a Thesis

A thesis follows a three-part structure — front matter, body, end matter.

TipFront Matter
Section Purpose
Title page Title, author, supervisor, institution, year
Certificate (by supervisor) Confirms originality
Declaration (by candidate) Affirms the work is the candidate’s own
Acknowledgements Thanks to those who supported the work
Abstract 150–300 word summary
Table of contents Navigation aid
List of tables, figures, abbreviations Reference aids
TipBody — Standard Five Chapters
Chapter Contents
1. Introduction Problem, significance, objectives, hypotheses, scope, limitations
2. Review of Literature Prior work, gap, conceptual framework
3. Methodology Design, sample, tools, procedure, statistical plan, ethics
4. Results / Analysis and Interpretation Data presentation, tables, figures, statistical findings, theme analysis
5. Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations Interpretation, comparison, limitations, implications, future work
TipEnd Matter
Section Purpose
References / Bibliography Full citation list
Appendices Tools, ethical clearance, supplementary material
Glossary Special terms (if needed)
Index Topic locator (more common in books than theses) 

flowchart TB
  F[Front Matter<br/>Title · Certificate · Declaration<br/>Abstract · ToC · Lists] --> B[Body<br/>5 Chapters]
  B --> C1[Ch 1: Introduction]
  B --> C2[Ch 2: Review of Literature]
  B --> C3[Ch 3: Methodology]
  B --> C4[Ch 4: Analysis & Interpretation]
  B --> C5[Ch 5: Discussion, Conclusion]
  B --> E[End Matter<br/>References · Appendices]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

10.3 Standard Format of a Research Article — IMRaD

The standard structure of an empirical research article is IMRaD — Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

TipIMRaD Structure
Section Question it answers
Title What is the paper about?
Abstract What did you do, find, and conclude?
I — Introduction Why was this study done? What was already known? What is the gap?
M — Methods What did you do, with whom, using what?
R — Results What did you find?
a — and (the conjunction)
D — Discussion What does it mean? How does it compare with prior work? What are the limits?
References Sources cited
Appendices / Supplementary Tools, raw data 

flowchart LR
  T[Title +<br/>Abstract] --> I[Introduction<br/>Why?]
  I --> M[Methods<br/>How?]
  M --> R[Results<br/>What?]
  R --> D[Discussion<br/>So what?]
  D --> RE[References]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

10.4 Citation Styles

A citation style is a standardised system for crediting sources. Different disciplines prefer different styles.

TipMajor Citation Styles
Style Field In-text citation Reference list
APA (American Psychological Association) Social sciences, education, psychology (Author, Year) Surname, Initials. (Year). Title. Publisher.
MLA (Modern Language Association) Humanities, literature (Author Page) Surname, Firstname. Title. Publisher, Year.
Chicago (Notes & Bibliography) History, arts Footnote / endnote with full citation Bibliography in alphabetical order
Chicago (Author-Date) Sciences, social sciences (Author Year) Reference list
Harvard Sciences, business, social sciences (Author, Year) Reference list
IEEE Engineering, computer science [1], [2] (numbered in order of appearance) Numbered reference list
Vancouver Medicine, biomedical (1), (2) (numbered in order of appearance) Numbered reference list
Turabian Student version of Chicago Same as Chicago Same as Chicago
AMA Medicine Superscript numbers ¹ ² Numbered reference list
OSCOLA Law (UK) Footnote Bibliography

10.4.1 Examples of the Same Reference in Three Styles

TipThe Same Source — Three Styles
Style Reference
APA 7th Knowles, M. S. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Gulf Publishing.
MLA 9th Knowles, Malcolm S. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Gulf Publishing, 1973.
IEEE M. S. Knowles, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing, 1973.

10.5 In-Text Citation Patterns

TipWorking In-Text Citation Forms (APA)
Source In-text
Single author (Knowles, 1973)
Two authors (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Three or more authors (Bloom et al., 1956)
Multiple sources, same parenthesis (Bloom, 1956; Knowles, 1973)
Direct quotation (Knowles, 1973, p. 41)
Government source (Government of India, 2020)

10.6 DOI, ISBN, ISSN — and Why They Matter

TipPersistent Identifiers
Identifier Full form Identifies
DOI Digital Object Identifier A specific online article or document, persistently
ISBN International Standard Book Number A specific edition of a book
ISSN International Standard Serial Number A journal as a publication
ORCID Open Researcher and Contributor ID An individual researcher
PMID PubMed ID A specific record in PubMed

DOIs are increasingly required in citation entries because the URL of a journal article may change, but the DOI remains stable.

10.7 Indexing and Impact

TipMajor Indexing Databases
Database Run by Notes
Web of Science (formerly SCI / SSCI / AHCI) Clarivate Analytics Selective; basis of Journal Impact Factor
Scopus Elsevier Larger coverage than Web of Science; basis of CiteScore, SJR
PubMed / MEDLINE US National Library of Medicine Biomedicine
Google Scholar Google Largest, least selective; basis of h-index
UGC-CARE List UGC, India Approved journals for Indian academic recognition
DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals Curated list of open-access journals
ERIC US Department of Education Education research
TipCommon Author and Journal Metrics
Metric What it measures
Journal Impact Factor (JIF) Average citations per article in the previous two years (Clarivate)
CiteScore Average citations per article in the previous four years (Elsevier)
SJR (SCImago Journal Rank) Weighted citations from Scopus
h-index Author has h papers each cited at least h times
i10-index Author has at least 10 papers each cited at least 10 times (Google Scholar)

10.8 Common Errors and Best Practices

TipFrequent Pitfalls
Error What to do instead
Citing what you have not read Read the primary source or cite the secondary source explicitly (“as cited in”)
Mixing citation styles within one document Choose one style and apply it consistently
Using a quotation without page number Always include page number for direct quotations
Padding the literature review Synthesise — do not annotate every paper
Reporting results without effect sizes Include effect size alongside p-values
Discussion that does not link back to objectives Structure discussion around the objectives stated in introduction

10.9 Practice Questions

Q 01 IMRaD Structure Easy

IMRaD stands for:

  • AIntroduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion
  • BIntroduction, Methodology, Review, and Documentation
  • CInvestigation, Measurement, Results, and Decision
  • DIdentification, Modelling, Recording, Analysis
View solution
Correct Option: A
IMRaD = Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion — the standard empirical research-article structure.
Q 02 Citation Styles Medium

Match the citation style with its primary discipline:

(i) APA (a) Engineering / Computer science
(ii) MLA (b) Social sciences and education
(iii) IEEE (c) Humanities and literature
(iv) Vancouver (d) Medicine and biomedical
  • A(i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(d)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(d), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(b)
View solution
Correct Option: A
APA → social sciences; MLA → humanities; IEEE → engineering / CS; Vancouver → medicine.
Q 03 DOI Easy

A DOI is a unique identifier for:

  • AAn author
  • BA specific online article or document
  • CA book edition
  • DA journal
View solution
Correct Option: B
DOI = Digital Object Identifier — a persistent identifier for a specific online article or document.
Q 04 h-index Medium

The h-index of an author is h if:

  • ATheir total number of papers is h
  • BThey have h papers each cited at least h times
  • CThey have published in h journals
  • DThey have h co-authors
View solution
Correct Option: B
An author has h-index h if they have h papers each cited at least h times.
Q 05 Thesis Structure Easy

Which of the following is not part of the front matter of a thesis?

  • AAbstract
  • BAcknowledgements
  • CReferences
  • DTable of contents
View solution
Correct Option: C
References sit in the end matter, not the front matter.
Q 06 Abstract Easy

A 200–300 word summary at the start of an article is the:

  • AIntroduction
  • BAbstract
  • CPreface
  • DForeword
View solution
Correct Option: B
The abstract is the concise (150–300 word) summary at the start of an article.
Q 07 ISSN Easy

ISSN is an identifier for:

  • AA book
  • BA journal
  • CA researcher
  • DAn institution
View solution
Correct Option: B
ISSN identifies a serial publication (journal). ISBN identifies a book edition; ORCID identifies a researcher.
Q 08 UGC-CARE Easy

The UGC-CARE list refers to:

  • AA directory of approved journals for Indian academic recognition
  • BA welfare scheme for researchers
  • CA funding agency
  • DA teacher-training programme
View solution
Correct Option: A
UGC-CARE is a directory of approved journals for Indian academic recognition.
ImportantQuick recall
  • Thesis (PhD, India/UK) ≠ dissertation (Master’s, India/UK; PhD, US). The terms flip between regions.
  • Thesis structure: Front matter → Body (5 chapters) → End matter.
  • Article structure: IMRaD = Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.
  • Citation styles: APA (social sciences), MLA (humanities), Chicago (history/arts), IEEE / Vancouver / AMA (numbered, sciences/medicine).
  • Identifiers: DOI (article), ISBN (book edition), ISSN (journal), ORCID (researcher).
  • Indexing: Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, UGC-CARE, DOAJ, ERIC.
  • Metrics: JIF, CiteScore, SJR, h-index, i10-index.