50 Policies, Governance, and Administration

50.1 What the Syllabus Covers

Indian higher education is governed by a multi-layered system of policies, regulators, and institutional structures. PYQs reliably ask: (a) constitutional placement of education (Concurrent List entry 25 post-42nd Amendment 1976; earlier State List), (b) NEP 2020 reforms (HECI, ABC, MEME, 4-yr UG, NRF, NETF), (c) regulator–sector match (UGC/AICTE/NMC/NCTE/BCI/CoA), (d) schemes and missions (RUSA 2013, HEFA 2017, NIRF 2015, IoE 2018, PM-USHA 2023), and (e) institutional governance (VC role, Court, Executive Council, Academic Council, Senate, Board of Studies).

50.2 Constitutional Position of Education

Education in the Constitution

Originally State List, Entry 11 of List II (Seventh Schedule).
42nd Amendment 1976 moved education to Concurrent List, Entry 25 of List III — both Centre and States legislate; Centre’s law prevails on conflict.
Article 21A (added by 86th Amendment 2002) — free and compulsory education for children 6-14 yrs.
Article 28 — no religious instruction in wholly state-funded institutions.
Article 29-30 — minority cultural and educational rights.
Article 45 (DPSP, original) — free compulsory education up to 14 yrs (now ECCE 0-6).
Article 46 (DPSP) — promote weaker sections especially SC/ST/OBC.
RTE Act 2009 — operationalised Art. 21A; entered into force 1 April 2010.
Higher education = Entry 66 of Union List (coordination and determination of standards) + Entry 25 of Concurrent List.

50.3 Central vs State Roles

Centre, State, and Institution

Centre (Ministry of Education, GoI):
- Acts of Parliament — establish Central Universities, IITs, IIMs, NITs, IISERs, AIIMS.
- Apex statutory regulators — UGC, AICTE, NMC, NCTE, BCI, CoA etc.
- National policies (NPE 1968 · NPE 1986 · NEP 2020).
- Schemes and funding — RUSA, PMRF, HEFA, NIRF, PM-USHA.
- Research foundations — DST, DBT, CSIR, ICAR, ICMR, ICSSR, ANRF.
State (State Govts via departments of Higher/Technical Education):
- Establish state universities and affiliating universities.
- Fund and regulate state colleges.
- State Council of Higher Education (SCHE) — under RUSA 2013 mandate; coordinates with UGC.
- Affiliation, fee fixation, recruitment in state universities.
Institution (each University):
- Internal governance via statutory bodies (Senate/Court, EC, AC, BoS, Finance Committee, IQAC).
- VC heads the executive; sometimes Pro-VC.
- Chancellor (Governor for State Univ, President for Central Univ — nominal head). :’’

50.4 Major Education Policies Timeline

Indian Education Policies & Commissions

Year	Policy / Commission	Chair
1854	Wood’s Despatch	Charles Wood
1882	Hunter Commission	W.W. Hunter
1902	Raleigh Commission	Thomas Raleigh
1904	Indian Universities Act	Lord Curzon
1917-19	Calcutta University Commission	M.E. Sadler
1929	Hartog Committee	Philip Hartog
1944	Sargent Report	John Sargent
1948-49	University Education Commission	S. Radhakrishnan
1952-53	Secondary Education Commission	A.L. Mudaliar
1964-66	Kothari Commission	D.S. Kothari
1968	National Policy on Education I	Indira Gandhi (Triguna Sen)
1986	National Policy on Education II	Rajiv Gandhi
1990	Ramamurti Review	Acharya Ramamurti
1992	Programme of Action (NPE rev)	N. Janardhana Reddy
2009	Yashpal Committee on Higher Ed	Yashpal
2009	National Knowledge Commission	Sam Pitroda
2020	National Education Policy 2020	K. Kasturirangan
2023	NCF-SE (school)	K. Kasturirangan

50.5 NEP 2020 — Higher-Education Reforms in Detail

NEP 2020 — HE Reforms

Approved by Cabinet on 29 July 2020; replaces NPE 1986.
Chair: Dr. K. Kasturirangan (former ISRO chairman).
MHRD → Ministry of Education (MoE).
Major HE reforms:
- HECI (Higher Education Commission of India) as single regulator with 4 verticals: NHERC (regulation), NAC (accreditation), HEGC (funding), GEC (standards).
- GER target: 26.3% (2018) → 50% by 2035.
- Multidisciplinary HEIs: MERUs (Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities) as Indian models on lines of IIT/IIM but multidisciplinary.
- 3 categories of HEIs: Research-intensive · Teaching-intensive · Autonomous colleges.
- CUET (Common University Entrance Test) — implemented for UG 2022; CUET-PG 2022.
- 4-Year Undergraduate Programme (FYUP) with multiple entry / multiple exit (MEME):
  - 1 yr → Certificate; 2 yr → Diploma; 3 yr → Bachelor’s; 4 yr → Bachelor’s Honours / with Research.
- Academic Bank of Credits (ABC) via DigiLocker — store and transfer credits.
- National Research Foundation (NRF → ANRF Act 2023) — apex funding.
- PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) by NCERT, 2023 — single national assessment body.
- NETF (National Educational Technology Forum).
- NDEAR (National Digital Education Architecture).
- PM-VIDYA — 200 DTH education channels.
- Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) Division — MoE, 2020.
- National Mission for Mentoring (NMM).
- National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) — NCTE 2022.
- 4-year ITEP as minimum teacher qualification by 2030.
- 40% online allowed in any course.
- MPhil discontinued.
- Vocational education from Class 6.
- Foreign HEIs: top-100-globally universities may open Indian campuses (UGC Regulations 2023; Deakin & Wollongong opened in GIFT City Gujarat 2024).
- Education spending target = 6% of GDP (reaffirms Kothari 1964).

50.6 Apex Regulators in Indian Higher Education

Apex Regulators

Body	Year	Statute	Sector
UGC	1953 / statutory 1956	UGC Act 1956	General HE
AICTE	1945 / statutory 1987	AICTE Act 1987	Technical
NCTE	1973 / 1993	NCTE Act 1993	Teacher Ed
NMC (replaces MCI 1934)	2020	NMC Act 2019	Medical
DCI	1948	Dentists Act 1948	Dental
PCI	1948	Pharmacy Act 1948	Pharmacy
INC	1947	Indian Nursing Council Act 1947	Nursing
VCI	1984	Indian Veterinary Council Act 1984	Veterinary
NCISM	2020	NCISM Act 2020	Ayurveda/Unani/Siddha
NCH	2020	NCH Act 2020	Homoeopathy
BCI	1961	Advocates Act 1961	Legal
CoA	1972	Architects Act 1972	Architecture
ICAR	1929	Society	Agriculture
RCI	1992 / 1993	RCI Act 1992	Rehabilitation
NCVET	2018	Gazette notification	Vocational
NAAC	1994	UGC autonomous	Accreditation (general)
NBA	1994	autonomous since 2010	Accreditation (engineering)
NIRF	2015	MoE ranking framework	Ranking
NTA	2017	Society	Testing
HECI (proposed)	NEP 2020	pending	Single regulator

50.7 National Schemes and Missions in HE

Key Schemes / Missions

Scheme	Year	Purpose
TEQIP	2002	Technical Education Quality Improvement (3 phases World Bank)
PMSSY	2003	New AIIMS + upgrade medical colleges
IGNOU online + SWAYAM	1985 / 2017	ODL + MOOC
AISHE	2010	All-India Survey on Higher Education
National Knowledge Network (NKN)	2010	High-speed academic network
RUSA (Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan)	2013	Centre-state funding for state HE
e-PG Pathshala	2014	INFLIBNET PG resources
NIRF	2015	National Institutional Ranking Framework
Skill India + PMKVY	15 July 2015	Skill development
NEAT	2019	National Educational Alliance for Technology
HEFA (Higher Education Financing Agency)	2017	Infrastructure loans
NTA	2017	National Testing Agency
SWAYAM	2017	MOOC platform
IoE (Institutions of Eminence)	2018	10 public + 10 private
PMRF (Prime Minister’s Research Fellowship)	2018	PhD fellowship at IITs/IISc
STARS (Science & Technology for Aatmanirbhar Bharat in Research Schemes)	2020	Research grants
ANRF / NRF	2023 (Act)	Apex research funding (replaces SERB)
PARAKH	2023	National assessment regulator
PM-USHA (replaces RUSA)	2023	New HE infrastructure scheme
Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERUs)	NEP 2020	Multidisciplinary universities
One Nation One Subscription (ONOS)	2024	National journal access

50.8 Institutional Governance — University Bodies

University Statutory Bodies

Chancellor — nominal head; Governor (State Univ) or President (Central Univ).
Vice-Chancellor (VC) — chief executive and academic officer; usually 5-yr term; appointed by Chancellor on recommendation of search-cum-selection committee.
Pro-Vice-Chancellor — assists VC.
Court / Senate — supreme advisory body; reviews policy.
Executive Council (EC) / Syndicate — main executive body; financial and administrative decisions.
Academic Council (AC) — academic decisions; curriculum approval.
Board of Studies (BoS) — subject-level curriculum and exam matters.
Finance Committee.
Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) — mandated by NAAC; coordinates quality benchmarks.
Research Advisory Council.
College/Department Council, Equal Opportunity Cell, ICC (POSH), SC/ST/OBC Cell.
Registrar — administrative head reporting to VC.
Controller of Examinations — examination administration.
Finance Officer.
Dean of Faculty / Dean Academic / Dean Research / Dean Students’ Welfare.

50.9 Quality Assurance and Accreditation

Quality Assurance

NAAC (National Assessment and Accreditation Council) — 1994; under UGC; assesses universities and colleges.
- Old grading: A++ / A+ / A / B++ / B+ / B / C / D.
- CGPA 4-point scale; cycle 5-7 years.
- NAAC 4.0 (Provisional Accreditation Programme + Levels 1-5) introduced 2024.
NBA (National Board of Accreditation) — 1994 (under AICTE), autonomous since 2010; engineering and tech programmes.
- Tier I (degree, NBA = signatory to Washington Accord 2014) + Tier II (diploma).
NIRF (National Institutional Ranking Framework) — 2015; 5 parameters:
1. Teaching, Learning & Resources (TLR).
2. Research & Professional Practice (RPC).
3. Graduation Outcomes (GO).
4. Outreach & Inclusivity (OI).
5. Perception (PR).
- Categories: Overall · University · College · Engineering · Management · Pharmacy · Medical · Law · Architecture · Innovation · Agriculture · Research · Dental · State Public University · Skill (added 2024).
AISHE (All-India Survey on Higher Education) — annual, since 2010, by MoE.
IQAC in every HEI; submits AQAR (Annual Quality Assurance Report).
Washington Accord 2014 — India’s NBA Tier-I accreditation recognised internationally.
Foreign HEIs UGC Regs 2023 — top-100 global universities permitted.
IoE 2018 — 10 public + 10 private (e.g., IIT Bombay, IIT Delhi, IISc, JNU, BHU, UDSC, AMU, Hyderabad Central + private: BITS Pilani, MAHE, Jamia Hamdard, Jio Institute, OP Jindal etc.).

50.10 Funding and Finance

HE Funding

MoE Budget 2024-25: ~₹1.20 lakh crore.
Higher-Education share ~50% of MoE allocation.
HEFA (Higher Education Financing Agency) — 2017; PSU under MoE, raises debt for infra.
PMRF (Prime Minister’s Research Fellowship) — 2018; PhDs at IITs/IISc.
UGC fellowships: JRF, SRF, RGNF (SC/ST), MANF (minority), PWD fellowship.
CSIR-UGC NET JRF — research fellowship.
State government grants to state universities.
NEP target: 6% of GDP (combined Centre + State) — yet to be achieved.
Endowment funds + alumni networks — growing.

50.11 Inclusion and Equity

Inclusion and Equity

Reservation in HE: SC 15%, ST 7.5%, OBC 27%, EWS 10% (103rd Amendment 2019), Persons with Benchmark Disabilities 5%.
103rd Amendment 2019 — added Art. 15(6) and 16(6) for EWS reservation up to 10%.
CSIR + UGC NET fellowships + MANF (Maulana Azad National Fellowship) + RGNF (Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship) for SC/ST.
Special schemes: Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS); Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV); Beti Bachao Beti Padhao; Saksham Scholarship; PM YUVA.
Internal Complaints Committee (POSH Act 2013).
Equal Opportunity Cell.
Anti-ragging: Raghavan Committee 2007 → UGC Regulations 2009.
Article 15(4) and 16(4) — special provisions for backward classes.

50.12 Centre–State Tensions and Emerging Issues

Emerging Issues

HECI not yet enacted — UGC, AICTE, NCTE still operative.
Foreign HEI presence — first GIFT City campuses (Deakin 2024, Wollongong 2024).
Online and AI-based learning scaling.
Internationalisation: “Study in India” programme 2018.
Knowledge economy: Patents, publications, citations.
Governance concerns: VC appointment politics; underfunding; faculty shortages; affiliation backlog.
Equity: First-gen learners, gender gap in STEM, rural-urban divide, language of instruction.
NEP roll-out: PARAKH 2023 operational; CUET 2022 expanded; ABC integrated 2023.
ONOS (One Nation One Subscription) 2024 — Govt-funded journal access for ~6,300 HEIs.

50.13 Theory Anchors

Key Anchors

Item	Detail
Education in Concurrent List	42nd Amendment 1976, Entry 25
Art. 21A + RTE	86th Amdt 2002; RTE Act 2009 (in force 1 April 2010)
Radhakrishnan Commission	1948-49
Kothari Commission	1964-66 (10+2+3, 6% GDP)
NPE 1986 + POA 1992	Rajiv Gandhi · Ramamurti 1990 · Janardhana Reddy
Yashpal & NKC	2009
NEP 2020	Kasturirangan; 29 July 2020
HECI 4 verticals	NHERC · NAC · HEGC · GEC
GER target	50% by 2035
MEME	1y/2y/3y/4y
ABC	DigiLocker
CUET	2022 (UG + PG)
ANRF / NRF	Act 2023; replaces SERB
PARAKH	NCERT, 2023
RUSA → PM-USHA	2013 → 2023
HEFA	2017
NIRF	2015
IoE	2018 (10+10)
NAAC + NBA	1994
NBA Washington Accord	2014
PMRF	2018
NTA	2017
103rd Amendment EWS	2019
Foreign HEIs UGC Regs	2023; Deakin & Wollongong opened GIFT City 2024
ONOS	2024

50.14 Practice Questions

Q 01 Constitution Medium

Education was moved from State List to Concurrent List by:

A42nd Amendment 1976
B44th Amendment 1978
C73rd Amendment 1992
D86th Amendment 2002

View solution

Correct Option: A

42nd Amendment 1976 — Entry 25 of List III.

Q 02 Art 21A Medium

Article 21A (right to free and compulsory education to children 6-14 yrs) was inserted by:

A42nd Amendment 1976
B73rd Amendment 1992
C86th Amendment 2002
D93rd Amendment 2005

View solution

Correct Option: C

86th Amendment 2002; RTE Act 2009 enforced 1 April 2010.

Q 03 NEP 2020 Easy

NEP 2020 was approved by the Union Cabinet on:

A15 August 2020
B29 July 2020
C2 October 2020
D26 January 2021

View solution

Correct Option: B

29 July 2020; Kasturirangan committee.

Q 04 HECI Medium

HECI proposed under NEP 2020 will have 4 verticals. Which is NOT one?

ANHERC (Regulation)
BNAC (Accreditation)
CHEGC (Funding)
DNPST (Standards for Teachers)

View solution

Correct Option: D

4 HECI verticals: NHERC · NAC · HEGC · GEC. NPST is for school teachers via NCTE.

Q 05 GER Medium

NEP 2020's GER target for higher education by 2035 is:

A35%
B40%
C50%
D75%

View solution

Correct Option: C

50% GER by 2035.

Q 06 RUSA Medium

RUSA (Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan) was launched in:

A2009
B2013
C2015
D2020

View solution

Correct Option: B

RUSA 2013; replaced by PM-USHA 2023.

Q 07 NIRF Medium

NIRF (National Institutional Ranking Framework) was launched in:

A2010
B2015
C2017
D2020

View solution

Correct Option: B

NIRF 2015 by MoE; first ranking released 2016.

Q 08 NIRF Hard

NIRF uses 5 broad parameters. Which is NOT one?

ATeaching, Learning & Resources (TLR)
BResearch & Professional Practice (RPC)
CGraduation Outcomes (GO)
DFinancial Strength

View solution

Correct Option: D

5 parameters: TLR · RPC · GO · OI (Outreach & Inclusivity) · PR (Perception).

Q 09 HEFA Medium

HEFA (Higher Education Financing Agency) was established in:

A2013
B2015
C2017
D2020

View solution

Correct Option: C

HEFA 2017; raises debt for HE infrastructure.

Q 10 IoE Hard

The "Institutions of Eminence" (IoE) scheme designates how many institutions in total?

A5 public + 5 private
B10 public + 10 private
C20 public + 20 private
D15 only

View solution

Correct Option: B

IoE 2018: 10 public + 10 private; ₹1,000 cr support over 5 yrs.

Q 11 CUET Medium

CUET (UG) was first conducted by NTA in:

A2017
B2020
C2022
D2024

View solution

Correct Option: C

CUET-UG 2022; CUET-PG also 2022.

Q 12 ANRF Hard

ANRF Act 2023 replaces which body at the apex of research funding?

AUGC
BCSIR
CSERB
DDST

View solution

Correct Option: C

ANRF replaces SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board).

Q 13 PARAKH Hard

PARAKH, the new national assessment regulator, operates under:

AUGC
BNCERT
CNTA
DCBSE

View solution

Correct Option: B

PARAKH under NCERT, 2023; standardises assessment across boards.

Q 14 EWS Medium

The 10% EWS reservation in higher education was enabled by:

A93rd Amendment 2005
B102nd Amendment 2018
C103rd Amendment 2019
D104th Amendment 2020

View solution

Correct Option: C

103rd Amendment 2019 — Art. 15(6) and 16(6).

Q 15 Ragging Hard

The UGC Anti-Ragging Regulations 2009 were based on the recommendations of:

AYashpal Committee
BRaghavan Committee 2007
CVerma Committee
DLyngdoh Committee

View solution

Correct Option: B

Justice R.K. Raghavan Committee 2007 at SC's direction.

Q 16 Wood's Despatch Medium

Wood's Despatch, "the Magna Carta of English Education in India", was issued in:

A1854
B1882
C1902
D1919

View solution

Correct Option: A

Wood's Despatch 1854, by Charles Wood; led to Calcutta/Bombay/Madras universities 1857.

Q 17 NAAC Medium

NAAC, the apex accreditation body for general higher education, is autonomous under:

AAICTE
BUGC
CMoE
DNCERT

View solution

Correct Option: B

NAAC under UGC 1994; HQ Bengaluru.

Q 18 Foreign HEI Hard

The first foreign universities to open campuses in India (GIFT City, Gujarat) in 2024 are:

AHarvard and MIT
BDeakin and Wollongong (Australia)
COxford and Cambridge
DYale and Princeton

View solution

Correct Option: B

Deakin & Wollongong (Australia), GIFT City, 2024. UGC Regs 2023 enabled.

Q 19 PM-USHA Hard

PM-USHA (Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan) was launched in 2023 replacing:

ARUSA
BTEQIP
CHEFA
DPMSSY

View solution

Correct Option: A

PM-USHA 2023 replaces RUSA 2013.

Q 20 Match Hard

Match scheme/body with its year:

(i)	NIRF	(a)	2017
(ii)	HEFA	(b)	2015
(iii)	NEP	(c)	2018
(iv)	IoE	(d)	2020

A(i)-b, (ii)-a, (iii)-d, (iv)-c
B(i)-a, (ii)-b, (iii)-c, (iv)-d
C(i)-d, (ii)-c, (iii)-b, (iv)-a
D(i)-c, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-b

View solution

Correct Option: A

NIRF 2015 · HEFA 2017 · NEP 2020 · IoE 2018.

50.15 Quick Recall

Quick recall

Constitution: Education = Concurrent List Entry 25 (after 42nd Amdt 1976); Entry 66 Union List (coordination of HE standards). Art. 21A added by 86th Amdt 2002; RTE Act 2009 enforced 1 April 2010. Arts 28/29/30/45/46 relate to education. 103rd Amdt 2019 = EWS 10%.
Policies: Wood 1854 · Hunter 1882 · Raleigh 1902 · Curzon’s IU Act 1904 · Sadler 1917-19 · Hartog 1929 · Sargent 1944 · Radhakrishnan 1948-49 · Mudaliar 1952-53 · Kothari 1964-66 (10+2+3, 6% GDP) · NPE 1968 · NPE 1986 (Rajiv) · Ramamurti 1990 · POA 1992 (Janardhana Reddy) · Yashpal 2009 · NKC 2009 (Pitroda) · NEP 2020 (Kasturirangan, 29 July 2020).
NEP 2020 HE: HECI (NHERC/NAC/HEGC/GEC) · 50% GER by 2035 · MERUs · 3 HEI types · CUET 2022 (UG+PG) · FYUP with MEME (1y Cert/2y Dip/3y Bach/4y Hons) · ABC via DigiLocker · NRF→ANRF Act 2023 (replaces SERB) · PARAKH (NCERT 2023) · NETF · NDEAR · PM-VIDYA · IKS Division · NPST · 4-yr ITEP by 2030 · 40% online · MPhil discontinued · Voc from Class 6 · Foreign HEIs UGC Regs 2023 (Deakin + Wollongong opened GIFT City 2024) · 6% GDP target.
Regulators: UGC 1956 · AICTE 1987 · NCTE 1993 · NMC 2020 · DCI/PCI 1948 · INC 1947 · VCI 1984 · NCISM 2020 · NCH 2020 · BCI 1961 · CoA 1972 · ICAR 1929 · RCI 1993 · NCVET 2018 · NAAC 1994 · NBA 1994 · NIRF 2015 · NTA 2017 · HECI (proposed).
Schemes: TEQIP 2002 · PMSSY 2003 · AISHE 2010 · NKN 2010 · RUSA 2013 · e-PG Pathshala 2014 · NIRF 2015 · Skill India + PMKVY 15 Jul 2015 · HEFA 2017 · NTA 2017 · SWAYAM 2017 · NEAT 2019 · IoE 2018 (10+10) · PMRF 2018 · STARS 2020 · ANRF Act 2023 · PARAKH 2023 · PM-USHA 2023 (replaces RUSA) · ONOS 2024.
University bodies: Chancellor (Governor/President) · VC (5-yr) · Pro-VC · Court/Senate · Executive Council/Syndicate · Academic Council · Board of Studies · Finance Committee · IQAC · Registrar · Controller of Examinations · Finance Officer · Deans · ICC (POSH Act 2013) · Equal Opportunity Cell · Anti-ragging cell (Raghavan 2007).
NIRF 5 parameters: TLR · RPC · GO · OI · PR.
NAAC grading 4-pt CGPA cycle 5-7 yrs; NAAC 4.0 (2024). NBA → Washington Accord 2014.
Reservation: SC 15% · ST 7.5% · OBC 27% · EWS 10% (103rd Amdt 2019) · PwD 5%.
Inclusion fellowships: UGC-JRF/SRF · MANF · RGNF · PMRF.
NEP funding target = 6% of GDP (Kothari 1964 reaffirmed).
The book ends here. Best of luck for the exam — Vande Mataram.