16  Effective communication: Verbal and Non-verbal, Inter-Cultural and group communications, Classroom communication

16.1 What the Syllabus Covers

The syllabus head bundles four examined topics:

  1. Verbal vs Non-verbal communication.
  2. Inter-cultural communication.
  3. Group communication.
  4. Classroom communication.

The most-repeated PYQ patterns are: (a) Mehrabian’s 7-38-55 rule, (b) non-verbal sub-types (kinesics, proxemics, chronemics, haptics, paralanguage, oculesics) and their theorists, (c) Edward T. Hall’s high-context vs low-context cultures, and (d) Flanders Interaction Analysis for classroom communication.

16.2 Effective Communication — Defined

Effective communication is communication that produces the intended understanding in the receiver, with minimum distortion. It is judged not by what was sent but by what was received and understood.

16.2.1 Mehrabian’s 7-38-55 Rule

Albert Mehrabian (1971, Silent Messages) — in face-to-face communication of feelings and attitudes, the relative weights of meaning are:

TipMehrabian’s 7-38-55 Rule
Channel Share of meaning
Verbal — actual words 7 %
Vocal — tone, pitch, volume 38 %
Visual — facial expression, body language 55 %
NoteImportant caveat

The rule applies specifically to emotional content (feelings and attitudes). It is often misapplied to all communication. For factual or technical communication, words carry the bulk of meaning.

16.2.2 Birdwhistell’s “65 % Non-Verbal” Estimate

Ray Birdwhistell (1970, Kinesics and Context) independently estimated that 65 % of meaning in a typical conversation is non-verbal. Together with Mehrabian, this is the standard PYQ pair.

16.3 Verbal Communication

Verbal communication uses words — spoken or written.

TipVerbal: Oral vs Written
Dimension Oral Written
Permanence Transient Permanent record
Feedback Immediate Delayed
Reach Limited (one room or call) Wide, scalable
Effort Low Higher
Tone Carries voice cues Lacks voice cues
Best for Discussion, persuasion, rapport Records, agreements, formal directives
Examples Lecture, conversation, interview, viva Letter, email, report, contract, textbook

16.3.1 Skills of Verbal Communication

Four classical skills: Listening · Speaking · Reading · Writing — often abbreviated LSRW in language pedagogy.

TipLSRW — Receptive vs Productive
Oral Written
Receptive Listening Reading
Productive Speaking Writing

16.3.2 Listening — Often the Most Neglected

Listening is not hearing. Hearing is physiological; listening is the active interpretation of what was said.

TipFive Types / Levels of Listening
  • Passive / Marginal listening — hearing without engagement.
  • Discriminative listening — distinguishing sounds, voices.
  • Comprehensive listening — understanding the content.
  • Critical / Evaluative listening — assessing the argument.
  • Empathic / Therapeutic listening — listening for feeling.
  • Active listening — paraphrasing, asking, summarising — the gold standard.

16.3.3 Paralanguage — The Vocal-Non-Verbal Bridge

Paralanguage is the how of speech, not the what: pitch, volume, rate, tone, intonation, articulation, pauses, fillers (“um”, “uh”). It sits on the boundary between verbal and non-verbal.

16.4 Non-Verbal Communication — A Systematic Taxonomy

TipSix Sub-types of Non-Verbal Communication
Sub-type Studies Theorist
Kinesics Body movement, gesture, posture, facial expression Ray Birdwhistell (1952)
Proxemics Use of space and distance Edward T. Hall (1966)
Chronemics Use of time Edward T. Hall
Haptics Touch Stanley Jones; Heslin
Oculesics Eye behaviour / gaze Adam Kendon (1967)
Paralanguage / Vocalics Non-verbal aspects of voice George L. Trager (1958)
Olfactics Smell —
Artifactics / Objectics Appearance, clothing, accessories —
Chromatics Colour —

16.4.1 Kinesics — Birdwhistell (1952)

Ray L. Birdwhistell founded kinesics in Introduction to Kinesics (1952). His unit of analysis: the kineme (smallest meaningful body movement). Kinesics covers:

TipCategories of Kinesics
  • Emblems — gestures with direct verbal translation (e.g., thumbs-up).
  • Illustrators — gestures that accompany speech.
  • Affect displays — facial expressions of emotion.
  • Regulators — gestures that manage conversation (nodding to continue).
  • Adaptors — habitual gestures (scratching, fidgeting).

The five categories above are Ekman & Friesen’s (1969) classification of non-verbal behaviour.

16.4.2 Ekman’s Six Universal Emotions

Paul Ekman identified six (later seven) universally-recognised facial expressions:

TipEkman’s Universal Emotions

Happiness · Sadness · Anger · Fear · Surprise · Disgust (+ later Contempt).

Ekman’s Facial Action Coding System (FACS) decomposes faces into ~46 action units (AUs).

16.4.3 Proxemics — Hall’s Four Zones (1966)

Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (1966), defined four interpersonal distances in North-American culture:

TipHall’s Four Proxemic Zones
Zone Distance Used for
Intimate 0 – 1.5 ft (0 – 45 cm) Family, close friends, lovers
Personal 1.5 – 4 ft (45 cm – 1.2 m) Friends, conversation
Social 4 – 12 ft (1.2 – 3.6 m) Acquaintances, business
Public 12 ft and beyond Public speaking, formal address

Cultural variation is significant: Mediterranean, Latin American, and Middle Eastern cultures tend to use closer distances; North-American, Northern European, and East-Asian cultures tend to use larger distances.

16.4.4 Chronemics — Time as Communication

TipChronemics — Time Orientations
  • Monochronic (M-time) cultures — one task at a time, punctuality, schedules (Germany, Switzerland, US).
  • Polychronic (P-time) cultures — multiple tasks, relationships over schedule (Latin America, India, Middle East).
  • Past-, present-, future-orientation (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck).

16.4.5 Haptics — Touch

TipHeslin’s Five Categories of Touch (1974)
  1. Functional / Professional — doctor, hairdresser.
  2. Social / Polite — handshake.
  3. Friendship / Warmth — hug.
  4. Love / Intimacy — partner.
  5. Sexual arousal.

Cultural variation: high-contact cultures (Italy, Middle East) vs low-contact cultures (Britain, Japan).

16.4.6 Oculesics — Eye Behaviour

TipEye Behaviours
  • Mutual gaze — connection.
  • Avoidance / aversion — discomfort, dishonesty (or cultural respect in some cultures).
  • Pupil dilation — interest, arousal.
  • Blink rate — anxiety, mental load.
  • Eye contact in public speaking — credibility, attention to audience.

16.4.7 Vocalics / Paralanguage

George L. Trager (1958) categorised paralanguage into voice qualities, vocalisations, vocal segregates, vocal characterisers.

16.4.8 Artifactics, Olfactics, Chromatics

Clothing, accessories, jewellery (artifactics) signal status, identity, profession. Smell (olfactics) — perfume, deodorant, body odour — carries cultural-laden meaning. Colour (chromatics) — black for mourning in Western, white for mourning in many Asian cultures.

16.5 Functions of Non-Verbal Communication (Knapp & Hall)

Mark Knapp & Judith Hall identified six functions of non-verbal communication relative to verbal:

TipSix Functions of Non-Verbal Communication
  1. Repeating — gesture for “this big” while saying “very big”.
  2. Substituting — thumbs-up instead of “good”.
  3. Complementing — smile while saying “thank you”.
  4. Accenting — banging the table to emphasise a point.
  5. Regulating — head nod to encourage continuation.
  6. Contradicting — saying “I’m fine” through clenched teeth (the famous “leakage”).

16.6 Inter-Cultural Communication

Inter-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultural backgrounds, where meaning depends on shared symbols that may not in fact be shared.

16.6.1 Hall’s High-Context vs Low-Context Cultures

Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture (1976):

TipHigh-Context vs Low-Context Cultures
Dimension High-context Low-context
Meaning carried by Context, relationship, non-verbal Explicit words
Communication style Indirect, implicit Direct, explicit
Decision-making Group consensus Individual
Examples India, Japan, China, Arab world USA, Germany, Scandinavia

16.6.2 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Geert Hofstede (IBM survey, 1980 onwards) — six cultural dimensions:

TipHofstede’s Six Cultural Dimensions
Dimension What it measures
Power Distance Index (PDI) Acceptance of unequal power
Individualism vs Collectivism (IDV) I vs we
Masculinity vs Femininity (MAS) Achievement vs cooperation
Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) Tolerance for ambiguity
Long-term vs Short-term Orientation (LTO) Future vs present focus
Indulgence vs Restraint (IVR) Gratification of desires

India scores: high PDI, moderately collectivist, moderate masculinity, low UAI, moderate LTO.

16.6.3 Trompenaars’ Seven Dimensions (1997)

Fons Trompenaars — universalism vs particularism · individualism vs communitarianism · neutral vs emotional · specific vs diffuse · achievement vs ascription · sequential vs synchronous time · internal vs external control.

16.6.4 Bennett’s DMIS (Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, 1986)

Milton Bennett — six stages from ethnocentric to ethnorelative:

TipDMIS — Six Stages

Ethnocentric: Denial → Defense → Minimisation. Ethnorelative: Acceptance → Adaptation → Integration.

16.6.5 Barriers to Inter-Cultural Communication

TipInter-Cultural Barriers
  • Ethnocentrism — judging others by one’s own culture’s standards.
  • Stereotyping — over-generalisation.
  • Prejudice — pre-formed negative attitude.
  • Anxiety — fear of mis-communication.
  • Language differences and accent.
  • Differing values — collectivism vs individualism.
  • Mis-reading non-verbal cues — gestures may have opposite meaning across cultures.

16.6.6 Strategies for Effective Inter-Cultural Communication

Learn the language; suspend judgement; ask for clarification; observe before speaking; develop cultural intelligence (CQ) (Earley & Ang, 2003); use empathy.

16.7 Group Communication

Group communication is communication among 3–20 people working toward a shared task.

16.7.1 Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development (1965; +1977)

Bruce Tuckman’s stages — added the 5th in 1977:

TipTuckman’s Five Stages
  1. Forming — orientation, polite, dependent on leader.
  2. Storming — conflict, jockeying for position.
  3. Norming — rules emerge; cohesion grows.
  4. Performing — productive, mature group.
  5. Adjourning — disbanding (added 1977).

16.7.2 Belbin’s Nine Team Roles

Meredith Belbin (1981, Management Teams):

TipBelbin’s Nine Team Roles
Cluster Roles
Action-oriented Shaper · Implementer · Completer-Finisher
People-oriented Coordinator · Teamworker · Resource Investigator
Thought-oriented Plant · Monitor-Evaluator · Specialist

16.7.3 Group Communication Networks (Bavelas-Leavitt)

Alex Bavelas (1948) and Harold Leavitt (1951) identified five small-group communication networks:

TipFive Group Networks
Network Structure Best for
Chain A↔︎B↔︎C↔︎D↔︎E Sequence assembly
Y Hierarchical fork Some routing decisions
Wheel One central person to all Speed, simple tasks
Circle Equal participation Complex problem-solving
All-Channel (Star) Everyone to everyone Creative problem-solving, satisfaction

Wheel is fastest for simple tasks; All-channel is best for complex tasks and member satisfaction.

16.7.4 Groupthink — Janis (1972)

Irving Janis (Victims of Groupthink, 1972) — a mode of thinking in cohesive groups where the desire for consensus over-rides realistic appraisal. Eight symptoms: illusion of invulnerability · collective rationalisation · belief in inherent morality · stereotyping out-groups · pressure on dissenters · self-censorship · illusion of unanimity · mindguards. Famous case: 1961 Bay of Pigs decision.

16.7.5 Other Group Phenomena

TipGroup Communication Phenomena
  • Social loafing (Ringelmann effect) — individual effort declines in groups.
  • Polarisation — group discussion pushes members toward more extreme positions.
  • Risky shift — groups take more risky decisions than individuals.
  • Brainstorming (Osborn 1953) — defer judgement, generate quantity.
  • Nominal Group Technique (NGT) — silent generation + round-robin.
  • Delphi method — anonymous, iterative expert-panel forecasting.

16.8 Classroom Communication

Classroom communication is the teacher-learner and learner-learner communication that takes place in instructional settings.

16.8.1 Flanders Interaction Analysis Category System (FIACS)

Ned A. Flanders (1960) — observation system for classroom verbal interaction (covered in Topic 1).

TipFIACS — Recap
  • Teacher Talk — Indirect (4): accepts feeling · praises · accepts ideas · asks questions.
  • Teacher Talk — Direct (3): lecturing · giving directions · criticising.
  • Pupil Talk (2): response · initiation.
  • Silence (1).

Coded every 3 seconds. Key metric: i/d ratio (indirect/direct influence).

16.8.2 Effective Teacher Communication — Six Skills

TipSix Teacher-Communication Skills
  1. Clarity of presentation — structure, language, examples.
  2. Voice modulation — pitch, pace, pauses.
  3. Body language — eye contact, posture, gestures.
  4. Active listening — to learner questions and contributions.
  5. Questioning — Bloom-level appropriate, probing.
  6. Feedback — timely, specific, constructive.

16.8.3 Classroom Communication Patterns

TipPatterns in the Classroom
  • Teacher-centred — one-to-many (lecture).
  • Learner-centred — many-to-many (discussion).
  • IRF / IRE sequence — Initiation (teacher Q) → Response (learner A) → Feedback or Evaluation (teacher). The dominant pattern in classrooms — described by Sinclair & Coulthard (1975) and Hugh Mehan (1979).
  • Triadic dialogue — same as IRF.
  • Dialogic teaching (Robin Alexander, 2008) — sustained reciprocal exchange.
  • Wait-time (Mary Budd Rowe, 1972) — pause of 3+ seconds after a question dramatically improves learner response quality.

16.8.4 Classroom Climate and Communication

Anderson & Walberg’s Learning Environment Inventory (LEI) (Topic 3) measures classroom communication-climate dimensions: cohesiveness, friction, formality, satisfaction, etc.

16.8.5 Inclusive Classroom Communication

Accessibility for learners with hearing or speech impairment (Indian Sign Language, captioning), with visual impairment (audio description, screen-reader-compatible materials), for first-generation learners (avoid jargon), for multilingual learners (translanguaging).

16.9 Effective Communication — A Synthesis

flowchart TB
  S[Sender] --> V[Verbal · 7%<br/>Words]
  S --> VO[Vocal · 38%<br/>Tone · Paralanguage]
  S --> NV[Visual · 55%<br/>Kinesics · Proxemics<br/>Haptics · Oculesics]
  V & VO & NV --> R[Receiver]
  R -. Active Listening + Feedback .-> S
  E[Cultural Context<br/>High vs Low<br/>Hofstede dimensions] -.-> R
  E -.-> S
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

16.10 Theory Anchors at a Glance

TipPersons, Years and Key Ideas
Person Year Contribution PYQ hook
Albert Mehrabian 1971 7-38-55 rule (verbal-vocal-visual) Emotional content only
Ray Birdwhistell 1952, 1970 Kinesics; 65 % non-verbal Foundational kinesics
Edward T. Hall 1959, 1966, 1976 Proxemics; Chronemics; High-vs-Low context 4 zones + cultural anthropology
Paul Ekman & Friesen 1969 5-category gesture taxonomy; FACS Universal emotions
George Trager 1958 Paralanguage categories Vocalics
Adam Kendon 1967 Oculesics (gaze) Eye behaviour
Heslin 1974 Five categories of touch Haptics
Knapp & Hall 1972 Six functions of non-verbal Repeat-substitute-complement-accent-regulate-contradict
Geert Hofstede 1980 Six cultural dimensions PDI · IDV · MAS · UAI · LTO · IVR
Fons Trompenaars 1997 Seven cultural dimensions Universalism etc.
Milton Bennett 1986 DMIS — 6 stages Ethnocentric → Ethnorelative
Earley & Ang 2003 Cultural Intelligence (CQ) CQ construct
Bruce Tuckman 1965 / 1977 Forming-Storming-Norming-Performing-Adjourning 5 stages
Meredith Belbin 1981 9 team roles in 3 clusters Action / People / Thought
Bavelas & Leavitt 1948 / 1951 5 group networks Chain/Y/Wheel/Circle/All-channel
Irving Janis 1972 Groupthink — 8 symptoms Bay of Pigs case
Ned Flanders 1960 FIACS — 10 categories, 3-sec sampling Classroom interaction
Sinclair & Coulthard / Mehan 1975 / 1979 IRF / IRE sequence Triadic dialogue
Robin Alexander 2008 Dialogic teaching Sustained reciprocal exchange
Mary Budd Rowe 1972 Wait-time 3+ sec after question

16.11 Practice Questions

Q 01 Mehrabian Easy

According to Mehrabian's 7-38-55 rule, the share of meaning carried by ACTUAL WORDS in face-to-face communication of feelings is:

  • A7 %
  • B38 %
  • C55 %
  • D93 %
View solution
Correct Option: A
7 % words · 38 % tone of voice · 55 % body language. Note: applies specifically to emotional content.
Q 02 Kinesics Medium

The study of body movement, posture and facial expression is called:

  • AProxemics
  • BKinesics
  • CChronemics
  • DHaptics
View solution
Correct Option: B
Kinesics — body movement (Ray Birdwhistell, 1952).
Q 03 Proxemics Medium

The four proxemic zones — intimate, personal, social, public — were defined by:

  • AEdward T. Hall
  • BPaul Ekman
  • CGeert Hofstede
  • DRay Birdwhistell
View solution
Correct Option: A
Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension, 1966.
Q 04 Proxemic Zone Medium

Hall's "personal zone" of communication typically extends:

  • A0 – 1.5 ft
  • B1.5 – 4 ft
  • C4 – 12 ft
  • D12 ft and beyond
View solution
Correct Option: B
Intimate 0–1.5 ft; Personal 1.5–4 ft; Social 4–12 ft; Public 12 ft+.
Q 05 Sub-type Medium

"Chronemics" in non-verbal communication studies:

  • ATouch
  • BUse of time
  • CUse of space
  • DUse of voice tone
View solution
Correct Option: B
Chronemics = use of time (Hall). Haptics = touch; proxemics = space; vocalics = voice.
Q 06 Sub-type Medium

The study of eye behaviour as communication is called:

  • AOculesics
  • BOlfactics
  • CVocalics
  • DArtifactics
View solution
Correct Option: A
Oculesics. Olfactics = smell; artifactics = clothing/objects.
Q 07 Paralanguage Easy

Pitch, volume, tone, intonation and pauses are part of:

  • AKinesics
  • BParalanguage / Vocalics
  • CHaptics
  • DChronemics
View solution
Correct Option: B
Paralanguage / Vocalics — the "how" of voice.
Q 08 Ekman Hard

Paul Ekman identified universally-recognised facial expressions of how many basic emotions?

  • AFour
  • BSix (later seven)
  • CEight
  • DTwelve
View solution
Correct Option: B
Six: Happiness, Sadness, Anger, Fear, Surprise, Disgust. Later added Contempt.
Q 09 Inter-cultural Medium

India is BEST classified as which of the following on Edward Hall's typology?

  • ALow-context culture
  • BHigh-context culture
  • CNo-context culture
  • DCross-context culture
View solution
Correct Option: B
India is a high-context culture (meaning carried by context, relationships, non-verbal cues).
Q 10 Hofstede Hard

Hofstede's framework of cultural dimensions has how many dimensions in its current form?

  • AThree
  • BFour
  • CSix
  • DNine
View solution
Correct Option: C
Six: PDI · IDV · MAS · UAI · LTO · IVR. Originally 4, then 5, then 6.
Q 11 Tuckman Medium

The correct sequence of Tuckman's stages of group development is:

  • AForming → Norming → Storming → Performing → Adjourning
  • BForming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning
  • CStorming → Forming → Performing → Norming → Adjourning
  • DPerforming → Forming → Norming → Storming → Adjourning
View solution
Correct Option: B
Tuckman: Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning (5th added 1977).
Q 12 Belbin Hard

Belbin's team roles are organised in how many clusters?

  • ATwo
  • BThree — Action, People, Thought
  • CFive
  • DNine
View solution
Correct Option: B
Belbin (1981): Action · People · Thought — 3 roles in each cluster = 9 total.
Q 13 Group Networks Medium

For COMPLEX problem-solving and member satisfaction, which group communication network is MOST effective?

  • AWheel
  • BChain
  • CAll-Channel (Star)
  • DY
View solution
Correct Option: C
All-Channel — everyone communicates with everyone. Best for complex/creative tasks. Wheel is fastest but only for simple tasks.
Q 14 Groupthink Medium

"Groupthink", the tendency of cohesive groups to suppress dissent in favour of consensus, was named by:

  • ATuckman
  • BBelbin
  • CIrving Janis
  • DAlex Osborn
View solution
Correct Option: C
Irving Janis, Victims of Groupthink (1972). 8 symptoms; classic case: Bay of Pigs.
Q 15 FIACS Medium

In Flanders Interaction Analysis, "asks questions" by the teacher falls in which sub-cluster?

  • ATeacher talk — direct
  • BTeacher talk — indirect
  • CPupil talk
  • DSilence / confusion
View solution
Correct Option: B
"Asks questions" is one of the 4 indirect teacher-talk categories (along with accepts feeling/praises/accepts ideas).
Q 16 Wait-Time Hard

"Wait-time" — the pause a teacher gives after asking a question — was first studied by:

  • ARobin Alexander
  • BHugh Mehan
  • CMary Budd Rowe
  • DN.A. Flanders
View solution
Correct Option: C
Mary Budd Rowe, 1972. A pause of 3+ seconds dramatically improves response length and depth.
Q 17 IRF Hard

The classroom communication pattern "Initiation → Response → Feedback/Evaluation" was described by:

  • ASinclair and Coulthard
  • BAlbert Mehrabian
  • CBruce Tuckman
  • DEdward T. Hall
View solution
Correct Option: A
Sinclair & Coulthard (1975); also described as "triadic dialogue" by Hugh Mehan (1979).
Q 18 Functions Hard

A learner says "I'm fine" through clenched teeth and tense shoulders. The non-verbal cues here are performing the function of:

  • ARepeating
  • BComplementing
  • CContradicting
  • DRegulating
View solution
Correct Option: C
Contradicting (the famous "leakage" of true emotion). One of Knapp & Hall's six functions.
Q 19 Listening Medium

Which of the following BEST describes "active listening"?

  • AHearing all sounds in the environment
  • BHearing without responding
  • CParaphrasing, asking, summarising, and providing feedback
  • DListening only to factual content
View solution
Correct Option: C
Active listening = paraphrasing, asking clarifying questions, summarising, and feeding back — the gold standard.
Q 20 Match Medium

Match each non-verbal sub-type with its founding theorist:

(i) Kinesics (a) Edward T. Hall
(ii) Proxemics (b) Paul Ekman
(iii) Universal emotions / FACS (c) Ray Birdwhistell
(iv) Paralanguage categories (d) George Trager
  • A(i)-c, (ii)-a, (iii)-b, (iv)-d
  • B(i)-a, (ii)-b, (iii)-c, (iv)-d
  • C(i)-b, (ii)-d, (iii)-a, (iv)-c
  • D(i)-d, (ii)-c, (iii)-b, (iv)-a
View solution
Correct Option: A
Birdwhistell → Kinesics; Hall → Proxemics; Ekman → emotions/FACS; Trager → Paralanguage.

16.12 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Mehrabian (1971): 7-38-55 — words / tone / body (emotional content only).
  • Birdwhistell (1970): 65 % non-verbal in typical conversation.
  • Verbal: Oral vs Written. LSRW: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing.
  • Listening levels: Passive · Discriminative · Comprehensive · Critical · Empathic · Active.
  • Paralanguage: pitch, volume, rate, tone, intonation, articulation, pauses, fillers.
  • Non-verbal sub-types: Kinesics (Birdwhistell 1952) · Proxemics (Hall 1966) · Chronemics (Hall) · Haptics (Heslin) · Oculesics (Kendon 1967) · Paralanguage (Trager 1958) · Olfactics · Artifactics · Chromatics.
  • Ekman & Friesen (1969): 5 gesture categories — Emblems · Illustrators · Affect displays · Regulators · Adaptors.
  • Ekman’s 6+1 emotions: Happiness · Sadness · Anger · Fear · Surprise · Disgust (+ Contempt). FACS.
  • Hall’s 4 proxemic zones: Intimate 0–1.5 ft · Personal 1.5–4 ft · Social 4–12 ft · Public 12+ ft.
  • Heslin’s 5 touch categories: Functional · Social · Friendship · Love · Sexual.
  • Knapp & Hall — 6 functions of non-verbal: Repeat · Substitute · Complement · Accent · Regulate · Contradict (leakage).
  • Hall — High-context vs Low-context. India = high-context.
  • Hofstede 6 dimensions: PDI · IDV · MAS · UAI · LTO · IVR.
  • Trompenaars 7 dimensions (1997).
  • Bennett DMIS (1986): 6 stages — Denial, Defense, Minimisation, Acceptance, Adaptation, Integration.
  • Cultural Intelligence (CQ): Earley & Ang 2003.
  • Tuckman (1965, +1977): Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning.
  • Belbin (1981) 9 roles in 3 clusters: Action (Shaper, Implementer, Completer-Finisher) · People (Coordinator, Teamworker, Resource Investigator) · Thought (Plant, Monitor-Evaluator, Specialist).
  • Bavelas-Leavitt 5 networks: Chain · Y · Wheel · Circle · All-Channel. Wheel = fastest simple; All-Channel = best complex.
  • Janis (1972) Groupthink: 8 symptoms. Bay of Pigs case.
  • Group phenomena: Social loafing (Ringelmann) · Polarisation · Risky shift · Brainstorming (Osborn 1953) · NGT · Delphi.
  • Classroom: Flanders FIACS (1960): 10 categories, 3-sec sampling; i/d ratio.
  • IRF / Triadic dialogue: Sinclair & Coulthard 1975; Mehan 1979.
  • Wait-time: Mary Budd Rowe (1972), 3+ sec after question.
  • Dialogic teaching: Robin Alexander 2008.